EDUCATION FOR ALL: THE YEAR 2000 ASSESSMENT

 

 

EDUCATION FOR ALL: THE YEAR 2000 ASSESSMENT

COUNTRY REPORT

 

BY

 

INDONESIA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE

1999

[This is an excerpt of country report containing relevant sections on literacy and non-formal education.]

Downloaded from Asia-Pacific Literacy Data Base (http://www.accu.or.jp/litdbase).

 EXECUTIVE REPORT

EDUCATION FOR ALL IN INDONESIA

…..

Undoubtedly, the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All (EFA-1990) has very much inspired Indonesia to make the educational sector a top priority among  human resources development programs throughout the country. The EFA strategy in Indonesia basically consists of four major programs, i.e., early childhood development (ECD), primary education, literacy programs, and continuing education. Since 1990, the great amount of resources --from the Government, private sources as well as from international donors-- have been devoted to invest in the development of these four program areas through a coordinating scheme among the concerned agencies.

…..

            The Equivalent Primary and Lower Secondary Schools; apart from the formal school system, basic education opportunity has also expanded through the non-formal education channel. Those who are not accessible by the SD and SLTP also have enjoyed learning in the Packet A and B programs that have invested more widely since the launch of 9-year compulsory  basic education. The number of students participated in Packet A program has increased since 1990 and reached the number of 44,803 in 1997/98, and most of them (89.7%) have passed the SD equivalency examination and made them eligible to pursue study to SLTP. The same is true, those who have participated in Packet B have increased since 1994 up to 94,345 participants in 1997/98 and most of them (90%) have passed the SLTP equivalency exam. Compared with the great proportion of participants who passed  the SD and SLTP examinations, the Packet A and B programs are expected to play a more important role in the future due to their higher efficiency rates.

            Literacy Programs; literacy program is one of the most important continuing education implemented by the MOEC since early 1970's. Beside the 9-year basic education equivalency of  Packet A and B programs, Indonesia continues to run literacy programs through Packet A, Functional Packet A, and OBAMA which have absorbed a great amount of public budget as investment in human resources. As a result, the number of illiterate population (IP) age 15-24 years  has been continually decreasing by 50.36% within 8 years from 1.3 million people (3.79%) in 1990 to 662,551 people (1.73%) in 1998. On the basis of gender illiterates age 15-24, young female has a higher probability of being illiterate than its male counterpart. The female illiteracy rate at 196.7% (or 884,954 people) out of  male illiterates in 1990 has decreased to 135.4% in 1998.

           Training in Essential Skills; this is implemented by means of vocational secondary school, non-governmental skill courses, industrial occupational training, and apprenticeships. For the quality improvement of vocational school graduates, an industry cooperation has been applied in most of vocational schools. One of the successful programs for training in essential skills is the standardization of the nine programs, --i.e. Secretary, Hotel, Computer, Electronics, Mechanic Automotive, Accountancy, Food Preparation, Fashion Design, and Beautician-- for improving quality of programs especially in the areas of technical, social culture, and learning competencies.

It has been a fundamental policy of the government to provide education for all citizens. In terms of educational expansion, Indonesia keeps increasing participation rate of SD and SLTP started intensively from 1990 toward the coming millennium. In line with this policy and facing with the economic crises, since July 1997, the Government has tried hard to prevent students from dropping-out and encouraged the dropped-out children to attend the equivalent out-of-school education programs. This is done by providing scholarships and learning funds for children from poor families. However, it is recognized that an expansion policy which has successfully made almost all 7-15 years old children attend basic education program, does not automatically fulfill the demands of basic learning needs as mentioned in the World Declaration on Education for All (March, 1990). Future challenges will still be confronted in making compulsory basic education functioning effectively, such as to make students survive from the crises, develop their full capacities, live and work in dignity, make informed decisions, and continue learning.

            For those very reasons, Indonesia tried to develop various programs to make Education for All more meaningful for the learners and society enhancing the  development of their full capacity. The following programs are cases that Indonesia try to develop further.

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            Second, many literate people became illiterate after attending the learning groups because learning materials and the needs of the learners for their survival and their needs to improve quality of life is hardly found relevant. To overcome this, since 1996 with the assistance of the World Bank and in cooperation with Asian/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO, Japan (ACCU), Indonesia has started upgrading local staffs to be able to work with learners in developing reading and learning materials more relevant to the learning needs and interests of the learners. Furthermore, it is expected that learners will find a true sense of becoming literate for the improvement of their quality of lives.

            Third, education should be relevant to the societal needs, understood, and community-supported in order to become meaningful for the people in undertaking societal functions. Indonesia has developed an approach known as community-base education through developing a Community Learning Centers. The Centers, start at the 360 pilot sites, serve community members who are not attending schools to acquire functional and occupational skills. Such kind of continuing education programs also upgrade community members in rural and poor areas --who are generally  lacking in knowledge and information, have limited competencies, lack of achievement motivation, and lack of capacity to change and make progress-- in fulfilling basic learning needs as primarily important and urgent needs to be provided. This program now is encouraged by the Government as a part of national program for the alleviation of  poverty.

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            Sixth,   the Community Skill Training Center has become one of the urgent needs in the Indonesian education system. This type of continuing education programs are initiated and managed by private organizations and business communities who are active in serving various skills for community members such as individuals, graduates of various levels and types of education, drop-outs, employees, and housewives. The programs offered include various types of specialization from sewing, hair-dressing, up to management and banking. These programs are flexible in nature in responding to the societal and occupational demands. The World Bank considers this as a very strategic educational effort that will satisfy the educational needs of the community in a fast changing time. The Ministry of Education and Culture in particular is making serious efforts in promoting this endeavor.

PART I

DESCRIPTIVE SECTIONS

1.       EFA Goals and Targets

…..

d. Reduction of Adult Illiteracy Rate

1) Objective

The objective of literacy program is to eradicate three kinds of inability such as: inability in reading Latin character and numeracy, inability in the Indonesian language, and inability in basic education.

In order to achieve its objective, literacy program is divided into three stages i.e., illiteracy stage, development stage and sustainable stage. The improvement of the literacy program is carried out through various activities such as research and study, monitoring and evaluation  and through various innovative measures. Thus, in 1995/1996  functional literacy was developed  in 9 provinces assisted by an expert assistance through World Bank Project. The pilot project, after some evaluation and improvement, will be expanded to 27 provinces. The functional literacy is very effective in eradicating illiteracy since it covers the need and interest of the learners so that it could raise their  motivation and active participation.

2) Target

During 10 years the program will cover 10 million people aged 10-44 in all stages. Each year it will cover one million  illiterates and  600 thousand semi-literate. During 10 years the illiteracy program will cover 16.5 million learners comprised of 5 million male and 11.6 million female.

e. Expansion of Basic Education and Training in Essential Skills

1) Objective

The objective of training in essential skills is to decrease unemployment, provision of skilled workers for entering  job market  at local, regional, and at the national level, improving the capability for those who work, improving market production and entrepreneurship for the entrepreneurs. And those who work at the formal and informal economic sectors as well as empowering various small and home industries.

2) Target 

Target groups are young workforce  who are unemployed  or those who are at work but need additional skills, graduates of lower secondary school who do not continue their education, and those who need skills in entrepreneurship and students at vocational schools.

f. Education for Better Living

1) Objective

Education for better living aimed at improving quality of life by providing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and basic values to enable learners to promote their quality of lives through individual, family and community efforts. The promotion of quality of life through individual and family covers health, education, economy, cultural values, humanity and job opportunity. The promotion of quality of life for community members covers a better living environment, community development, social services (social safety net) and peace.

2) Target

The target groups are the poor community members who are now estimated to be 80 million.  It is also directed to less educated people who are not healthy. The various groups covered by the program are: 12 million of 10 years old and above, 21 million  who do not complete primary education, 27 million  who do not complete lower secondary education, and 8 million  who do not complete upper secondary school.

2.      EFA Strategy and/or Plan of Action

At present Indonesia is facing monetary crisis which will affect the enrollment rate in 9-year basic education, transition rate from SD to SLTP, increased  number of illiteracy and  drop-outs and decrease motivation of community and family in the achievement of EFA. Therefore, the following strategy and plan of action taking care of basic learning needs are planned for the next 25 years by the technical working groups of EFA under the coordination of the Coordinating Minister for People’s Welfare, such as:

·         ….

·         Provide distance and out-of-school equivalency program for children who are not   accommodated in primary or lower secondary school.

·         Eradicate illiteracy through various innovative and integrated efforts.

·         Provide flexible and relevant educational opportunities for drop-outs, newly   

literates and graduates of primary, lower and upper secondary education.

·         …..

During the International Literacy Day  and May 2^nd (The Indonesian Education Day), the President of the Republic of Indonesia makes a policy statement which is included in the 25-year development plan of education in Indonesia. The strategy and plan of action are formulated based on statements made by the President. The statements are reformulated during the Committee meetings coordinated by the Minister for People’s Welfare which consists of three sub committees, i.e. sub-committee on mobilization of human resources, sub-committee on educational services, and sub-committee on media and technology. The committee plans the meetings every 6 months to monitor and review the programs and plans. Each of the member Ministries revises the plans and strategies every five year and annually through the National Planning Board.

For information and campaign on EFA it is done during the ceremonies of International Literacy Day and Indonesian Education Day. Various activities such as seminars, literacy competition, and reading competition are being implemented to increase reading habits, and  publications of pamphlets, posters and leaflets are issued during the celebration.

3.      EFA Decision-making and Management

A National Working Group of APPEAL was set up based on the Minister of Education and Culture directive No. 0377/P/1988 dated 30 July 1989. Technical team members of the working group consist of various Ministries and NGOs. The Ministerial level is coordinated by the Minister for People’s Welfare, who is also the coordinating body of 9-Year Basic Education in Indonesia, while the technical working group is coordinated by the Director-General of Out-of-school Education, Youth and Sports, Ministry of Education and Culture. At the levels of province, district, and sub-district it is coordinated by the Team Coordinator of 9-Year Basic Education, that is the Director-General of Basic and Secondary Education, MOEC.

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4.  Cooperation in Education for All

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Community contribution  is mainly provided by non-governmental organizations, religious institutions and private enterprises. NG0s are essential and significant partners of the Government in its efforts to achieve EFA, and to improve quality of education, equity in access, educational efficiency and relevance. This is based on a government regulation of 1992 (Government Act no 32/92) which directs community participation towards improved quality in education and encourages the community to provide ideas and suggestions as inputs for educational policy decision-making process and for the implementation of educational programs. Hundreds of NGOs are working with Government in  eradicating illiteracy. In addition to this, 19,000 private courses  institutions are also taking an active part.

…..

5. Investment on EFA

It  is  very   difficult  to   find  out  an  exact number of how  much money  have  been  used  to finance  EFA  in Indonesia,  because   the biggest  part of the  money  used  for   financing  EFA  came  from  at  least   two Directorate-Generals (DGs). Some of  financial resources  of DG  of  Basic and  Secondary  Education have  been  used  to finance  EFA  activities,  so does  the financial resources  of  DG  of Out-of-school  Education, Youth and Sports.  So, how  much  money have been spent   by these  two  DGs  (see  the   following table)  for  educational  activities is  used  as  a proxy  for  how  much  money  had been invested for  EFA activities.

Table 1

Educational  Budget from  FY 89/90--FY 96/97

DG-BSE and OSEYS

in million  rupiahs

Institution	89/90	90/91	91/92	92/93	93/94	94/95	95/96	96/97
DG of BSE	713,045	1,076,344	1,347,645	1,615,119	1,913,804	2,437,370	2,954,839	3,297,257
DG of OSEYS	25,626	41,493	60,792	78,403	89,890	118,298	148,075	172,820
Total	738,671	1,117,837	1,408,437	1,693,522	2,003,694	2,555,668	3,102,914	3,470,077
GDP	*	*	*	*	1,744,000	1,737,000	1,975,000	2,297,000
Total/GDP					1,148,907	1,471,311	1,571,096	1,510,700

Note: * data not available

The  table 1  shows  that  educational  budget  for  EFA  activities  tended  to  increase  from 89/90 to  96/97  for  both  always  balanced  with  the increasing  tendency   of  the   gross  domestic product (GDP)  as   the  table   also   shows that  the  Total/GDP decreases  from  1995/1996  to  1996/1997.  This  comparison  is  made  by   assuming   that  the  value  of  rupiah  to US  dollar  is  held  constant. It is not  clear  whether  or  not the  decreasing  tendency  of total/GDP shows that  the EFA  activities  have   achieved  its ultimate  goals.  To  ensure the  issue one  more  variable should  be  added, i.e. the Indonesian population   who  still need the EFA  activities. If this  population decreases, one  may  expect  the  good  news that the EFA  activities have   relatively reached  the  goals (at least from  the  perspective  of  equal opportunity  of  access  to education),  but if this population  increases, this will be  a sign that  the EFA  activities  need  more  attention  from  all those  who are   concerned with.  It is   beyond  the scope  of  today's  discussion  to speak  from  the perspective of  the   quality  of  education   because  it  involves  more  variables.

PART II  

ANALYTIC  SECTIONS

6. Progress toward goals and targets

a.      Expansion of early childhood care and developmental activities

…..

b)         Education and Training Program of Family with Infant (BKB)

            The BKB program educates and trains mothers in villages to improve their knowledge, attitudes and skills on how to raise their infants and older children. The program of mothers, infants and children is supported by the government and this has been spread throughout Indonesia. This program is mainly for families who attend a family planning program and have infants and small children. To support this program, BKB has already trained volunteers as cadres of  BKB to help parents who are unable to educate and raise their children. At the end of the training, parents are expected to educate their infants and children and to supervise the development of children from the early age of infants until they are three years old. 

            The data collected from 1991 to 1997 showed that there was a continuous increase on the groups of  BKB or BKB participants. The sharp increase could be seen in  1993, there was  7,431 groups with 119,800 participants in 1991 and this became  67,148 groups with  1,237,488 participants in 1993. In 1996 the number of participants increased to  3,929,669. This condition was one of the impacts of active family planning program at the time. Then, in 1997 however, there was a decrease of participants around 4 percent. This might be as an impact of economic crisis in Indonesia. In 1998 there was again an increase of around 15 percent towards  BKB participants. This situation indicated that an effort to increase facilities of  BKB and its participants were actively done (see Graphic 6). Data on the members of BKB in 1995 and 1996 are not available.

           

Source: national Family Planning Coordinating Board (BKKBN)

           

Some issues and problems of  BKB are as follows.

(1). Although the number of BKB has fulfilled the target, families who have participated in this program are not low income families but are those from middle and under middle income families that were established through family planning.

(2). Nearly all trainers of BKB are volunteers and their jobs can continually be renewed. They have also lack of experiences to support the cognitive development of children.

2) Education 

            Beside health sector, ECD is also implemented through an educational program. Education in pre-primary school is a kind of education to help raise and develop children physical and mentally outside the family environment before they go to primary school. This program is conducted either through formal education or through out-of-school education. The types of pre-primary school are play group, kindergarten, and other places where mothers can send their children during work, called ‘Day Care’ (Tempat Penitipan Anak-TPA).

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b.      Primary Education

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3) Out-of-school Basic Education

According to the Law on National Education System, the education system is organized in two different channels, in-school or formal education and out-of-of school  or non-formal education. The out-of-school education is based on Government Regulation No 73/1991. The regulation stated that out-of-school education is aimed at (a) serving learners in order that they could develop themselves at their earliest age during their life to uplift their standard of living and their self-esteem, (b) developing learners in order that they acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to develop themselves, to work to get income and to continue education at the higher level, (c) meeting the educational needs of the community which could not be met by the school. The out-of-school basic education consists of Packet A equivalent to Primary Education and Packet B equivalent to Lower Secondary Education.

The objective of the programme is to support the Nine Year Compulsory Basic Education through the out-of-school education channel in order that all children age 13-15 attain education equal to lower secondary education level. In addition, it makes possible for learners to fulfill the requirements for further education at higher level. The learning activity is held three times a week depending on the consensus reached by the learners, tutor, manager, and organizer. Students study with the tutors but must also study autonomously or in small groups outside the class time. The learning content is divided according to lower secondary education curriculum, delivered in the form of modules. Students are evaluated by a multiple-choice test on each subject at the end of each semester to determine if they will move on to the next set of modules.

1) Packet A  Program Equivalent to Primary Education

Packet A program is a non-formal equivalent to primary education program which would provide both general and vocational education to the drop-outs or  to those who could not be accommodated in formal schools.

Packet A learning activity is implemented through learning groups and/or course. Each group consists of a maximum  of 40 learners assisted by at least one tutor who have had educational training or who are teachers of primary school. Generally, three groups are assisted by an institution or organization and a program manager is appointed for those three learning groups. Tutor and manager are given a monthly financial incentive. The financial resource of the Packet A program may come from the state income and expenditure budget, the provincial income and expenditure budget, grant or loan from abroad, and community self-financing. In 1994,  Packet A was implemented within the framework of supporting the Nine Year Basic Education program. During 1997/1998 a National Final Stage Evaluation (PEHAPTANAS) was organized in cooperation with the Examination Center.  Out of the 44.803 participants 40.164 (89.65%) passed the exam. After having successfully passed the PEHAPTANAS, the graduates of Packet A were given the opportunity to continue studying at an advanced level through formal school or non-formal one.       

2) Packet B Program Equivalent to Lower Secondary Education

The Packet B program is a non-formal equivalent to a lower secondary education program which would provide both general and vocational education to primary school graduates or its equivalency who could not continue education, and to lower secondary school drop-outs. The program is intended for 13-15 years population, however, older students are accepted as well. Packet B students are not expected to continue schooling after graduation, but if they want to do so they can sit in a state equivalency  examination and obtain a regular lower secondary school certificate. Therefore, the vocational component of Packet B is regarded as an important part of the program, to ensure that after graduation the students already in possession of some skills for employment or self-employment. Further training may be needed, which will be provided by courses or by income-generating programs in continuing education.

Packet B learning activity is implemented through learning groups and/or course. Each group consists of a maximum of 40 learners assisted by at least 5 tutors who have had educational training or who are considered to be able to teach a subject matter or study field in Packet B program. Generally, three groups are assisted by an institution or organization and a program manager is appointed for those three learning groups. Tutor and manager are given a monthly financial incentive. The financial resource of the Packet B program may come from the state income and expenditure budget, the provincial income and expenditure budget, grant or loan from abroad, and community self-financing. At the end of three years, students take a test similar to the one taken by the regular lower secondary education students. The achievement exams are nationally organized, therefore, the Packet B graduates will have the same quality as lower secondary education graduates. The graduates receive certificates, equal rights and recognition to pursue further education.

In order to find out the results of instruction during 1997/1998 a PEHAPTANAS was organized in cooperation with the Examination Center, MOEC. Out of 94.345 participants 89.62% successfully passed. Among participants who passed the PEHAPTANAS tests, some of them pursue a higher educational level (Upper Secondary School).

c. Learning Achievement and Outcomes

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d.  Adult Literacy

1)      Number of Illiterate Population (IP) of 15-24 years age group, Year  1990-1998

            The number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group in Indonesia, in 1990 and in 1998, were respectively 1,334,816 and 662,551 people, or equal to, respectively, 3.79% and 1.73% of the total number of population 15-24 years age group. The IP  has decreased by 50.36% or by   672,265 people during the last 8 years. The decreasing  number of  illiteracy  is shown in Table 2.8.

Table 2.8

Decreasing Number of Illiterate Population (IP)

of  15-24 years age group, Year 1990-1998

		Decreasing Number of Illiterate Population of 15-24 years age group, year 1990-1998
No	Year	Total Illiterate	Decreasing number of Illiterate Population   percentage
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9	1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998	1,334,816 1,265,488 * 1,196,160 1,027,937 867,399 877,827 846,974 733,775 662,551	69,328  69,328 * 168,223 160,538 +10,428 ** 30,853 113,199 71,224	5,19 5,48 14,06 15,62 1,20** 3,51 13,37 9,71

Note: *   = number of estimation;  ** = a rise in number of IP

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics

            On the basis of  gender illiterates  of 15-24 years age group, young female has a higher probability of being illiterate than young male. It can be seen from the data of 1990 that female illiteracy rate was 196.72% (or 884,954 people) of the number of male illiterates. Although female illiteracy rate in 1998 was still higher than male illiteracy rate, female illiteracy rate has decreased during the period of 1990-1998 (from 196.72%  in 1990 to 135.58% in 1998).

            On the basis of illiteracy rate by location (rural versus urban), there were a significant difference between rural and urban illiteracy rate. The data indicated that rural illiteracy rate in 1990 was 86.85% of the total number of  IP or accounted to 1,159,264 people, and in 1998, 569,623 people or 85.97% of the total number of  IP.  

            The decrease in the number of illiterate population during the period of 1990 to 1998 may be described in details as follows. In 1990 the number of illiterates may be described as follows. The number of male illiterates of 15-24 years age group in urban area was  56,251 people and female illiterates was 119,310 or 67.96% of the total number of IP located in the urban area. The number of male illiterates was 393,611 and 765,653 female illiterates  or 66.05%  of the total number of IP located in the rural area.  

            In 1991, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was  1,265,488 people or 3.7% of the total number of population aged  15 to 24. That number included 426,497 male illiterates and 838,991 female illiterates or 66.3% of the total number of IP of 15-24 years age group. The most of  IP  was found in the rural area (87.50% or 373,168 people). The illiteracy rate during the period 1990-1991 indicated that illiteracy  decreased 5.19% or 69,328, consisting  of  23,365 male and 845,963 female illiterates.

            In 1992, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 1,196,160 or 3.42% of the total number of population of 15-24 years age group consisting 408,080 (34.12%) male illiterates and 788,080 (65.88%) female illiterates. The highest illiteracy rate was found in the rural area (i.e. 86.47%). Similar to the  previous year, female illiteracy rate was still higher  than male illiteracy, either located in the rural (65.23%) or in the urban (70.06%) areas. Compared to the  1991 data, there was a decrease of the number of IP in 1992 of 5.48% or 69,328, while the composition and their spreading were relatively the same  as in the previous year.

In 1993, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 1,027,937 or 2.88% of the total number of population of 15-24 years age group. That number included 361,280 male illiterates and 666,657 female illiterates or 64.85% of the total number of IP by 15-24 years age group. The highest illiteracy rate was found in the rural area  885,348 people or 86.13%. Compared to the previous year (1992), the number of IP  decreased in 1993 by 14.06% or 168,223, while the probability of their spreading was relatively the same  as in the previous year.

In 1994, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years ages group  867,399 or 2.37% of the number of population of 15-24 years age group. That number included 311.897 (35.95%) male illiterates and 555,502 (64.04%) female illiterates. Most of  the IP was found in the rural area (85.61%). Similar to the  previous years,  number of female illiterates in 1994 was   higher than male illiterates, either located in rural (63.65%) or in urban (66.37%) areas. The number of  IP decreased  by 15.62% (160,538) of its previous year, while their composition and spreading were relatively the same as that of the  previous year.

            In 1995, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 877,827 or 2.47% of the number of population of  this group. That number included 342,323 male illiterates and 535,504 female illiterates or 61% of the total number of IP of this group. Most  of  them were  located in the rural area, i.e. 742,548 or 84.59%. The number of IP in 1995 increased to  10,428 and it  increased  1.20% compared to 1994. The increase  was caused by coming of  male illiterates, i.e. 30,426 or 9.76%, either located in urban (39.47%) or in rural (5.13%) areas. On the contrary, the number of female illiterates has decreased from  3.6% or 19,998 people, comprising   7.36% in   urban and 2.94% in rural areas. The increase of the number of IP, probably, was caused by using a different system of data sampling from the previous one.

In 1996, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was  846,974 or 2.31% of the total population of 15-24  years age group comprising   of 328,368 (38.77%) male illiterates and 518,606 (61.23%)  female illiterates.  Most of them  were found in the rural area (85.3%). Compared to  1995, in 1996 there was a decrease in the number of IP, accounted for 30,853 or 3.51%. Similar to the previous years, the number of female illiterates was still higher than  male illiterates, either located in rural (61.85%) or in urban (57.61%) areas.

            In 1997, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 733,775 or 1.92% of the total number of population of 15-24 years age group. That number consists of  283,397 male illiterates and 450,378 female illiterates or 61.38% of the total number of IP of this group. The highest illiteracy rate was found in the rural area, i.e. 57.61% or 631,934 people. Compared to  1996, in 1997 the number of IP decreased  to 13.37% or 113,199. The possible   spreading was the same  as in the previous years.

In 1998, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 662,551 or 1.73% of the total number of population of  the same age group. That number consisted of 281,240 (42.45%) male illiterates and 381,311 (57.55%) female illiterates. Most of them was found in the rural area (85.97%). Compared to  1997, there was a decrease of  the number of IP in 1998 by 9,71% or accounted to  71.224. Similar to  the previous years, female illiteracy rate was higher than male illiteracy rate, either located in rural (57.76%) or in urban (56.28%) areas. The number of IP  decreased by 13.37% or 113,199 compared to the previous year. The decrease in male illiterates was 2,157  (7.61%) and in female illiterates was 69,067 (…%) has contributed to the decrease in the total number of  IP.

2)  Number of IP of 15 years old and over, Year 1990-1998

The number of IP of 15 years old and over in 1990 was 22,102,647 or 20.32% of the number of population by the same age group. That number consisted of 6,229,833 (28.19%) male illiterates and 15,872,814 (71.81%) female illiterates. In 1998, the number of IP 15 years old and over  remained 16,641,760 (12.11%) of the total number of population of  this group, comprising  5,022,614 (30.18%) male illiterates and 11,619,146 (69.82%) female illiterates.

The data showed that the number of IP decreased to  5,460,887 (24.71%) during the last eight (8) years. The decrease in the number of IP (except for the period of 1994 to 1995, there was an increase  by 6.63%) is presented in  Table 2.9.

            On the basis of gender illiterates of 15 years old and over, female illiteracy rate tends to be higher than male illiteracy rate. It can be seen from  1990 data, the number of female illiterates was 15,872,814  or 254.79% of male illiterates. Also, in 1998, female illiteracy rate was still higher than male illiteracy rate,  accounted for 11,619,146 or 231.34% of male illiterates.

            On the basis of illiterate population by location (rural versus urban), it is found that rural illiteracy rate tends to be higher than urban illiteracy rate. Data of 1990 showed that rural illiteracy rate was 86.26% of the total number of IP (or 19,064,689 people) and in 1998, it decreased to 13,576,979 (81.58% of the total number of  IP).

Table  2.9

Decreasing Number of Illiterate Population of 15 years old and over,

Year 1990–1998

		Decreasing number of Illiterate Population of 15 years old and over year 1990 - 1998P
No	Year	Total Illiterate	Decreasing number
			of Illiterate population		percentage
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9	1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998	22,102,647 22,071,298 * 20,039,949 20,214,421 18,529,280 19,844,743 19,075,696 16,443,550 16,641,760	31.349   2,031,349 (+)174,472 685,141 (+)1,315,763 769,047 2,632,146 198,210	** **	0.14 10.14 0.86 9.09 6.63 4.03 16.00 1.20

Note: *   = number of estimation;  ** = a rise in number of IP

Source: Central  Bureau of Statistics

           

The decrease in the number of IP of 15 years old and over, during the period of 1990 to 1998,  is presented as follows:

In 1990, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over, in the  urban area, was  804,312 (26.48%) male illiterates and 2,233,646 (73.52%) female illiterates. While in the rural area, it was found 5,425,521 male illiterates and 13,639,168 female illiterates or 71.54% of the total number of IP located in the rural area.

            In 1991, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was 22,071,298 (19.33%) of the total number of population by the same age group. This number consisted of 6,219,692 male illiterates and 15,851,606 or 71.82% of the total number of IP by the same age group. Most of IP was found in the rural area, i.e. 19,033,882 (86.26%), comprising  5,417,352 male illiterates and 13,616,530 (71.54%) female illiterates.  Compared to 1990, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1991 by 0.14% or 31,349 people, while there was no  significant difference in the decrease of the number of  IP  between male and female illiterates.

            In 1992, the number of IP of 15 years old and over was  22,039,949 or 18.55% of the total number of population by the same group. This number included 6,865,208 (31.15%) male illiterates and 15,174,741 (68.85%) female illiterates. Most of them was found in the  rural area (82.96%). Similar to  1991, in 1992 the number of female illiterates was higher than male illiterates, either located in rural (67.7%) or in urban (74.47%) areas.  Compared to 1991, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1992, accounted for 31,345 (0.14%).  Their composition and spreading were the same  as in the previous years.

In 1993, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was 20,214,421 or 16.67% of the total number of population by the same age group. This number consists of 6,282,265 male illiterates and 13,932,156 female illiterates or  68.92% of the total number of IP by the same age group. Most of   IP was found in the rural area, accounted for 16,719,661 or 82.71%. Compared to 1992, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1993 by 8.28% or 1,825,528, while this number was relatively proportional  among male and female illiterates.

In 1994, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was recorded as 18,529,280 or 14.84% of the total number of population by the same age group, while the number of male illiterates was 5,726,074 (30.90%) and the number of female illiterates was 12,803,206 (69.10%), The majority was found in the rural area (82.56%). Similar to the  previous years, the number of female illiterates was always   higher than male illiterates both located in rural (67.81%) and in urban (75.20%) areas. Compared to  1993, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1994, accounted for 1,685,141 or 8.34%, Their composition and spreading were relatively the same  as in the previous years.  

In 1995, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was recorded as 19,844,743 or 15.99% of the total number of population by the same age group. This number included 6,106,584 male illiterates and 13,738,159  female illiterates or 69.23% of the number of  IP by the same age group. The majority was found in the  rural area, i.e. 16,104,964 or 81.15%. There was an increase in number of IP, accounted for 1,315,643, which differed from the previous years or an increase of 6.63% of the number of IP by the same age group in 1994. The increasing number of  IP  was contributed by an increase in the  number of male and female illiterates, accounted for respectively to  380,510 (6.65%) and 934,953 (7.30%).  The increasing number of  IP was caused probably by using a different system of data sampling from the previous one.

In 1996, the number of illiterate population of 15 years old and over was 19,075,699 or 14.66% of the total number of population by the same age group. This number included 5,888,339 (30.84%) male illiterates and 13,193,360 female illiterates or 69.16%. The majority was found in the rural area (81.66%). Compared to  1995, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1996, accounted for 769,044 or 3.88%. Similar to the  previous years, the number of female illiterates in 1996 was higher than male illiterates, either located in rural (67.87%) or in urban (74.91%) areas.

In 1997 the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was reported 16,943,550 or 12.59% of the total number of population by the same age group. This number consisted of 5,155,550 male illiterates and 11,779,000 female illiterates or 69.56% of the number of  IP by the same age group. Most of  them was found in the  rural area, accounted for 13,681,329 or 80.79%. Compared to  1996, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1997 by 11.22% or 2,141,149 people. The probability of spreading was relatively the same as in the previous years.

            In 1998 the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was counted as 16,641,760 or 12.11% of the total number of population by the same age group. This number consisted of 5,022,614 (30.18%) male illiterates and 11,619,146 (69.82%) female illiterates. The majority was found in rural area, i.e., 13,576,979  (81.58%). Compared to  1997, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1998 by 292,790 (1.73%). Similar to the  previous years,  the number of female illiterates was higher than male illiterates, either located in rural (68.63%) or in urban (75.08%) areas.

3)    Innovations Implemented

a)  Combating Illiteracy

            Successful campaign  against illiteracy requires the involvement of all parties and support of various governmental agencies with similar program targets,  Therefore, as of 1994/1995 implementation of the campaign  against illiteracy was developed through the Aksara Manunggal Bhakti Operation or OBAMA,  Campaign  against illiteracy through OBAMA has the objective of augmenting coordination between the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the Ministry of Education and Culture and the ABRI (Armed Forces).

            In OBAMA the role of ABRI is as the  responsible agent operationally, and as a facilitating agent,  The Ministries of Home Affairs and Religious Affairs play a role in optimizing the utilization of equipment and mobilization of teaching staff under the regional government, as well as the  mobilization of prominent local community members. The party responsible for technical implementation of OBAMA is the Ministry of Education and Culture.

            In order to motivate the implementers of the Illiteracy Campaign Program a literacy prize competition   is organized annually from Kabupaten (district) up to national levels, Winners of the Literacy Prize Competition at national level  were  announced during the Celebration of the  International Literacy Day.

            The role of Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (NGO)  and social organizations in empowering community members  to  continuously join the literacy learning groups is very important.

The results achieved during 4 years are as follows:

In fiscal year 1994/1995, through  OBAMA project about one million participants participated in literacy classes.  In 1995/1996 one million  members finished the basic level while  another million joined the literacy classes. During 1996/1997 one million joined literacy classes as beginners,  two million finished the basic literacy level and  one million were fully literate.

b) The Packet A Equivalent to Primary School (SD) 

            In 1994, the Packet A equivalent  to SD was implemented within the framework of supporting the nine-year compulsory basic education program.

            During 1997/1998 a National Final Phase Evaluation (PEHAPTANAS) was organized in cooperation with the Examination Center, MOEC.  Out of 44,803 participants 40,164 (89,65%) passed the exam.

            After having successfully passed the PEHAPTANAS, the  participants were given the opportunity to continue studying at an advanced level through formal school or out-of-school channel.

            For the improvement and development of the tutors’ knowledge while assisting the learners a tutor association has been established.

c) The Packet B Equivalent to Lower Secondary School ( SLTP)

            Under   Packet B  learning groups since  1998/1999, in addition to the main subjects, which are  in the form of modules, specific skills in agriculture  were also being developed. In order to find out the results of the learning process during 1997/1998 a PEHAPTANAS was organized in cooperation with the Examination Center, MOEC.  Out of 94,345 participants there were 89.628% who successfully passed the exam,

            Among participants who passed the PEHAPTANAS tests, some of them continued to study at  a higher level (Upper Secondary School).

e.  Training in Essential Skills (TES)

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7.      Effectiveness of  the EFA Strategy, Plan and Programs

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            There are at least two prominent aspects that need to be reviewed to improve the government strategies to carry through this program. First, as the implication of 9-Year Universal Basic Education program is to provide educational opportunities for about 6 million people, the limited capacities of the government for schooling provision should optimally be matched with the efforts of implementing Packet A (for primary school level) and Packet B (for lower secondary level) programs. There has to be priorities setting promulgated, so as Packet A and Packet B programs can optimally be devoted to contribute to Nine-Year Compulsory Basic Education program. 

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8. Main problems encountered and anticipated

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d.  Problems in Illiteracy Eradication

1)  Lack of continued support of community and NGOs in empowering and motivating adult literacy learners.

2)  The different data on the number of illiteracy collected caused lack of accuracy in data analyses.

e.  Problems of Training in Essential Skills

There is disparity between job-seekers and job opportunities due to the existing disparity between the skills acquired and the required skills. The problem will persist if equality, relevancy and quality of education are not continuously promoted. The enhancement of equal educational opportunities and quality of basic education will improve the structure of workforce in Indonesia, which in turn will increase economic growth of the country and create new job opportunities.

f.  Conclusion.

In principle, lack of access to production of data which is useful, accurate, and on time, has been the main problem to be solved in order to facilitate the decision-making process and the accuracy in educational planning. The coordination among the concerned ministries/agencies is one of the key factors in solving this problem.

9.  Public awareness, political will and national capacities

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            In order to support the program of compulsory 9-year basic education, out-of-school education has also a very important role to play. In addition to elimination of illiteracy, it also provides an education equivalent to primary and lower secondary school, namely Packet A and Packet B. Therefore, school and out-of-school education are mutually supportive in aiming at providing a 9-year basic education opportunity.

10.  General Assessment

This sub-chapter discusses  general assessment of the following aspects, i.e., early childhood development, basic education (primary and lower secondary school, which include Madrasah Ibtidaiyah-Islamic primary school-and Madrasah Tsanawiyah-Islamic lower secondary school), literacy program and training in essential skills.

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d. Literacy Program  

            Despite some problems faced by the Indonesian people, especially monetary crisis since the midst of 1997, literacy program shows significant improvement. Good coordination among Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education and Culture, and Ministry of Defense has made significant contribution to the success of literacy program. This coordination is realized through a program called "OBAMA" ("Operasi Bakti Manunggal Aksara") where Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Religious Affairs are responsible for the optimalization of educational resources (educational facilities and manpower). Ministry of Defense is responsible for the availability of facilitators, while Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for technical implementation of the program.

            As long as the equivalent to Primary School  is concerned, one of the development of literacy program is at the outset the Packet A equivalent to SD in 1994, where the graduate of this packet is allowed to continue studying at the higher level of education, through formal or out-of-school channel. A tutor association has been established for the tutors in order that they can improve their knowledge and skills while they also assist the learners to learn.

            Similar to Packet A, the graduate of  packet B is also allowed to continue studying to Upper Secondary School.

PART III

PROSPECT POLICY DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

11.    Policy directions for the future

It has been the basic policy of the Indonesian government emanating from the constitutional obligation to provide education for all Indonesian citizens. For this, the policy for educational expansion is still the basic one. Based on this policy, Indonesia keeps increasing the participation rate of primary school children from 92.02% in 1990 to 94.98% in 1996, and literacy rate from 79.86% in 1990 to 85.34% in 1996. In line with this policy, the government in facing the economic crisis, since July 1997, has tried hard to prevent students from dropping-out and provided out-of-school children to get equivalency program through out-of-school educational program by providing scholarships for children from the poor families, and providing learning fund for out-of-school children that attend equivalency programs. …..

b. Functional Literacy Movement

When literacy rate has reached 87% of the 10 years of age and above, this rate will be very hard to increase. One of the factors influencing this situation is the many literate people who became illiterate after leaving the learning group. This seems to be due to irrelevant nature of the learning materials to the learning needs of the learners for their survival as well as for their need to improve the quality of life. To improve this condition since 1996 with the help of the World Bank expert and in cooperation with Asian/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO, Japan (ACCU), Indonesia has started developing reading and learning materials more relevant to the learning needs of the learners. For this, we are upgrading local staff to be able to work with the learners to develop and write reading/learning materials relevant to their interests and needs. It is expected that through this model, the learners will find the sense of becoming literate for the improvement of their quality and lives.

c. Community-based Education and Community Learning Centers

            Recognizing that unless education is relevant to the societal needs, understood, and supported by the community, education will not be meaningful to the people and therefore its functions in the community will not be attained effectively as expected. For this, Indonesia tried to develop an approach known as Community-Based Education. This approach is to be implemented through an out-of-school education program through the development of Community Learning Centers. These centers, start with about 360 sites, act as community education centers serving community members that do not have a chance to attend schools, that need to master functional and marketable skills to improve their quality of lives and other functions of continuing education. It is understood that in many cases rural areas are poor areas. This is due to the lack of knowledge and information, limited competencies, lack of achievement motivation, and lack of self confidence of the people to change and progress. For this very reason, the availability of continuing education programs that can upgrade community members to fulfill their basic learning needs is very important and urgently need to be provided. This program now is encouraged by the government as a part of national program to alleviate poverty.

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f. Standardization of Community Skill Training Program

Community skill training center has become one of the strategic characteristics of the Indonesian education system. These continuing education programs are initiated and managed by private organizations and the business community who are active in serving the educational needs of the community. The clients of this programs are individuals, the graduates of various levels and types of education, drop-outs, employees, as well as housewives. The types of programs offered include various trades and specialization from sewing, hair-dressing, up to management and banking. These programs are so flexible in nature in responding to the societal and job market demands. The World Bank saw this as a very strategic educational effort that can satisfy the educational needs of the community in a fast changing time. The Ministry of Education and Culture in particular is making serious efforts in this endeavor.

g. Armed Forces Civic Mission to Combat Illiteracy

After literacy rate achieved the level of 86% it is difficult to find and organize learning groups due to thinly scattered illiterate people, mostly in remote areas and isolated places as well as in poor areas in urban neigbourhood. To identify and organize the illiterates efficiently and effectively into the learning groups, the Ministry of Education and Culture recognizes that it is impossible for the Ministry alone to manage effectively. For this very reason since 1995 Indonesia launched a joint effort among Ministries of Education and Culture, Religious Affairs, Home Affairs, and the Armed Forces to combat illiteracy with the personnel of the Armed Forces supporting the mobilization and operation of the program especially for the illiterates in the remote and isolated areas.

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