Health of the nation: An individual or a corporate social responsibility? A preliminary investigation into consumer perceptions

Health of the nation: An individual
or a corporate social responsibility?
A preliminary investigation into
consumer perceptions
Seema Bhate*
University of Sunderland, Business School, Reg Vardy Building, St. Peter’s Campus, Room 203 D,
Sunderland SR6 ODD, UK
Britain is increasingly mirroring a number of nations in terms of the continued growth in
prevailing levels of illnesses related potentially to human food consumption. As this issue
fast becomes global, the question of whose responsibility it is, has come to the forefront of
the debate. Other groups, apart from the Governments with direct involvement in this
crisis are the Consumers and the Marketers. Using the food industry as the basis, the study
primarily focuses on the consumers’ perceptions of the nature and the extent of the
problem. To investigate, three products used in the study are placed on a continuum;
Chocolates represent one end and Genetically manufactured foods the other. Fast foods
are represented in the middle. This framework highlights variations in consumer
perceptions based on product differences: manufacturers have been held responsible
for the provision of pertinent information in the case of genetically manufactured
products; in the context of fast foods and Confectionery both manufacturers and
consumers have been seen as responsible for consumers’ existing consumption patterns.
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
The issue of corporate social responsibility
(CSR) is not new and incorporates views
presented by ancient philosophers such as
Aristotle. The emphasis as evident today,
however, was provided by the Industrial
Revolution which required a restructuring of
established pattern of relations between
companies and its employees. Historically,
the dominant perspectives have ranged from
the religious, the democratic, the eco environmental,
the financial and the people aspects of
businesses. These prevalent viewpoints
stretched over several decades have shaped
not just the roles that businesses play now in
societies but also the contemporary nature of
debates in this area. The ongoing debate has
recently been brought to the forefront of
current academic and business thinking due to
heightened awareness regarding health issues
amongst consumers. These issues, triggered
mainly by the increased levels of obesity and
other illnesses, have raised a crucial question as
to who should undertake the responsibility for
these problems. The CSR debate has impacted
Journal of Public Affairs
J. Public Affairs 7: 164–180 (2007)
Published online in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/pa.255
*Correspondence to: Seema Bhate, University of Sunderland,
Business School, Reg Vardy Building, St. Peter’s
Campus, Room 203 D, Sunderland SR6 ODD, UK.
E-mail: seema.bhate@sunderland.ac.uk
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
upon the economy, the food industry and
public opinion of the food industry. In an era
when large corporations are considered
increasingly to be untrustworthy, it is vital
for their survival and financial viability that
companies do all that they can to restore the
trust their community should hold in them.
Business ethics and corporate social responsibility
have developed into more than just
buzz-words; they have become important
components of management strategy and are
thus essential to the growth and reputation of
organisations (Lloyd, 1990).
Background
The issue of health concerns the nation; the
three bodies that share the burden of addressing
it are the Government, the Consumers and
the Businesses. This paper focuses on consumers’
perception of issues related to dietary
health and how responsibility can be
apportioned between themselves and organisations.
Businesses have to live up to certain
expectations that societies have of them in
terms of employment, investment and long
term commitment aimed at the welfare of its
consumers. The corporate image can often
determine the long-term success of an organisation,
an image formed on the basis of
consumer attitudes toward the organisation
and the consumer’s willingness to purchase
from the company. The bond between society
and corporations is based arguably on trust.
Unfortunately this has waned over the years
due to business scandals and fear of the extent
of control that corporations have over everyday
life (Varney, 2004). A study conducted by
the UK Food Standards Authority indicates that
organisations use ‘lying labels’ which mislead
consumers into making purchases that are
falsely described as ‘traditional and farmhouse
products’ (Elliott, 2004; Uhlig, 2004). Research
by Mori indicates that 70% of consumers
believe that industry and commerce neglect
their social responsibility and although 38% of
organisations said that corporate responsibility
plays a part in their purchase process, only a
minority took part in completing the Corporate
Responsibility Index questionnaire (Pedelty,
2004). This has led to the conclusion ‘‘that
many of Britain’s biggest companies are still
not taking corporate social responsibility
seriously’’ (Armistead, 2004).
On their part, consumers are buying more
ethical products now. In 2002, sales of ethical
goods increased by 13% in a period when the
British economy grew only by 1.7% (Pedelty,
2004). Although this highlights activities that,
‘‘may represent a step in the right direction but
such efforts have to be sustained and widely
adopted to generate long-lasting benefits’’
(Bhate, 2002). The degree of public involvement
is questionable. For instance: levels of
consumer involvement in the area of pro
environmental behaviour are very low; consumers
still place more emphasis on ‘price and
convenience’ when it comes to their day to day
shopping (Bhate, 2002). The discussion above
highlights two issues at the crux of this debate.
Firstly: there may be differences between
consumers and organisations in their perception
of the extent of their responsibilities
(Dornoff and Tankersley, 1975) and; secondly
consumers, on their part may not accept or
comprehend fully their ethical responsibilities
(Davies, 1979; Davidson, 1998; Deidre and
Edward 2000). For instance a study reports that
only less than a third of the public can name an
ethically or environmentally responsible company
(Pedelty, 2004).
The scepticism amongst consumers has
been exacerbated due to the rapid increase
in globalisation and recent technological
advances. On the one hand these highlight
opportunities for businesses but on the other
hand impose certain restrictions and responsibilities.
However, it is the moral issues
associated with technological innovations
such as the development of genetically
modified foods that have proved to be the
controversy recently. The activities involved in
promoting products described as controversial,
concern particularly the Marketing function
which has long been criticised of ethical
abuse (Chonko and Hunt, 1985; Dunfee et al.,
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
Corporate social responsibility 165
1999; Palmer et al., 2001; Lans-Retsky, 2004).
Nantel and Weeks (1996) present an accurate
picture of the situation by posing this question,
‘‘Is there anyone who has not heard stories of
false advertising, pressure selling or even
discriminatory pricing practices?’’ Marketers
have often been accused of promoting consumption
and targeting vulnerable consumer
groups (Cannon, 1992; Castleberry and
French, 1993; Chang, 2004).
Now of all the disciplines associated closely
with Marketing, Advertising has emerged as
the most controversial because some view it as
aiding the escalation of obesity and other
illnesses through the use of promotional
campaigns aimed at maximising short-term
profits. It is an argument that pushes the
capitalist market against the issue of business
ethics (The Economist, 2000). It is estimated
that $400 billion is spent on advertising every
year worldwide (Harvard Law Review, 2003).
A recent Mori poll indicates that 84% of UK
parents believe that food companies target
children excessively in their advertising campaigns
(Boseley, 2002; www.food.gov.uk./
westminster diet and health forum, 2004;
Westminster diet, 2004). At present 70% of
the costs of children’s television programmes
in Britain are funded by advertising. Forty per
cent of these costs are met by food manufacturers
promoting sweets, fast food, breakfast
cereals with added sugar, savoury snacks and
soft drinks. This highlights the opportunity
that manufacturers and advertisers have to
manipulate the time-sensitive preferences of
consumers in order to promote poor dietary
habits especially in a low involvement decision
scenario (Harvard Law Review, 2003).
The normative nature of this ethical debate
has been widely captured by several philosophical
perspectives. A significant number of
articles address the issue of ethics (Laczniak,
1983; Crane and Matten, 2004; Laczniak and
Murphy, 2006) and several theories that
represent various but often interlinked ethical
value systems have been put forward by
academics (Fritzsche and Becker, 1983; Laczniak,
1983; Fraedrich et al., 1991). Of these,
the ones that are of particular interest to this
current discussion are the Utilitarian and Egoist
viewpoints as these may reflect the interests of
the two players relevant to this present
research; the organisations and the consumers.
Utilitarianism, a popular consequentialist
theory associated with the work of Bentham
(1994) and Mill (1971), is based on the notion
that a decision is correct morally if it serves to
benefit the majority of those affected by the
decision in question. Ethical Egoism, subscribes
to the notion that the pursuit of ones
own long or short term goals is not incorrect
morally as this will result in a good life for the
decision maker. Critics argue that at its
extreme, egoism may result in ‘anarchy and
chaos’ as all individuals in a given social system
will act to maximise their self-interests
(Hobbes, 1979). Smith (1979) presented an
alternative to the Hobbesean perspective by
demonstrating that Egoism may result in
utilitarian benefits. Here egoism aids an
economic system where there is free competition
and information flow in societies.
Organisations, whilst competing with each
other, not only benefit themselves but in the
process but also better societies at large
(Desmond and Crane, 2004). In a similar vein,
Davies (1979) concludes that the different
viewpoints, dominant at different times in
history, are not mutually exclusive.
From a practical perspective, Steger (2000)
points out that when businesses, operating
within normal economic and political
confines, attempt to pursue ethical values,
that, ‘no universal set of ethical principles
exists; most are too woolly to be helpful; and
the decisions that companies face everyday
rarely present themselves as ethics versus
economics in any case’. Organisations therefore
interpret ethics to be a set of rules,
appropriate and specific to themselves (Beauchamp
and Bowie, 1979; Fisher and Lovell,
2006). This lack of generalisation leads to the
creation of a number of ‘in-house’ rules with
no commonality amongst them. Moreover, the
question ‘can self-selected private individuals
decide what the social interests are?’, also
raises valid concerns (Werhane, 1999; Neal,
2005). Even if it can be argued that businesses
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
166 Seema Bhate
do manage to draw the boundary where
profit-maximisation ends and normative behaviour
begins, one would still need to identify
those boundaries and conditions specific for
different markets and operational in varying
international contexts (Cannon, 1992; Aurifeille
and Quester 2003). The normative (ought
to) response therefore may have to be
described by using non-normative (how to)
narratives provided by economic, political,
ecological and democratic commentators. This
may lead to a proliferation of ideas rather than
any specific guidance. The concept of corporate
philanthropy has been forwarded by some
to emphasize a need for a systematic development
of this issue, with a sharper focus, into a
strategy (Hopkins, 2005). Nantes and Weeks
(1996) provide an alternative perspective to
this debate when they propose that ethics and
business need not represent the opposite ends
on a continuum. Using the notion that is widely
accepted to describe the marketing process,
they point to the fact that the primary aim of
the marketing function is to satisfy its consumers.
This, according to them, represents an
ethical approach which is utilitarian in nature.
Given the background where there are no
clear guidelines for organisations and consumers
to act ethically, this current research aims
to provide an understanding of how consumers
perceive the dynamics in the marketplace
in terms of their own role and that of these
organisations in terms of the health-related
issues. As indicated earlier, perceptual differences
between the consumers and retailers do
exist with, for instance, retailers having much
lower ethical standards and a lower threshold
of tolerance when it comes to the language
used in cigarette advertising (Sturdivant and
Cocanougher 1973; Dornoff and Tankersley,
1975).
The current framework
The first study (The results of this
study are displayed in appendices 1–5)
The chocolate confectionery market provided
the focus of the first study. Interviews were
conducted to gain an insight into consumer
perceptions surrounding obesity and how
much emphasis they place on organisations
to deal with health-oriented problems. One
hundred questionnaires were distributed and
responses collected over a period of 8 weeks.
The distribution of the questionnaires was
based on convenience and was conducted
mainly in public places especially cafeterias
and student accommodation in two UK
locations: London and Sunderland. The process
resulted in 68 questionnaires that were
considered usable.
The results indicated that Parents/Public
were considered the most at fault (by 56% of
the respondents) for the rise in obesity.
Organisations were rated as the second most
responsible group by 19% of the respondents.
When asked why they had apportioned blame
in this way, many of the participants’ ideas
were shared. The most common were that
parents had ultimate control over what their
child ate and therefore were responsible for
their consumption.
Although organisations were not named as
the primary source for the crisis their
participation in activities aimed at reducing
obesity was viewed as unsatisfactory. The
results also highlight that there are demands
for low fat confectionery in the marketplace, a
need for an active effort on the part of
organisations and schools to reduce high fat
confectionery and to promote healthy living.
The second study
The first study, provided an interesting insight
into the consumer perception of where the
blame lies but also raised questions regarding
the extent to which product-specificity and the
study’s narrow focus on confectionery and to a
certain extent, obesity, may have been the
determining factors. This prompted the extension
of the framework to be applied to a wider
context so as to include other product
categories such as Fast Foods, GM foods and
Confectionery in the context of obesity and
other health-related issues.
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Corporate social responsibility 167
The dynamic nature of the food industry
provided a rationale for it to be the basis for
this investigation. During the last few decades
it has made the news headlines for one reason
or another—the scarcity of food in terms of
famines and droughts or the over-abundance of
it in relation to food-mountains in Europe. It
has also been an area of several health scares
over the last few years. Crucially to this
investigation people’s attitudes towards eating
have modified dramatically due to their
concerns with health-related issues (Foods
Standards Agency, 2005).
The 1980’s saw these concerns converted
into increased awareness, triggered largely by
two governmental reports by NANCE (1983)
and COMA (1984). These criticized the quality
of the average Briton’s diet by highlighting its
high salt and fat contents and linked them to
the increased instances of heart diseases and
strokes. Over the following years this phenomenon
has exacerbated largely attributable to
the enhanced consumption of processed and
take-away foods. Commenting on the current
enormity of the problem, Graff (2006) points
out that food that is sold on the health
platform, although it may contain less sugar,
may still contain high amounts of salt. He
further discusses the reasons for such high
levels of salt in our foods and highlights what
he refers to as the ‘most cynical’ of all reasons,
‘salt makes you thirsty—and many companies
that sell you food are also keen to put drinks in
your direction’ (Graff, 2006). A similar cynicism
is expressed by Seal (2006) in her article,
when she indicates that more than the
recommended levels of sugar exists in various
products not normally associated with sugar,
such as breakfast cereals.
However, it is the infusion of technology in
food production has proved to be an area of
controversy. Since the launch of genetically
modified (GM) delayed-ripening tomato puree
in 1996 (BBC News, 1996), GM food products
have become more visible in our day to day
food purchases. Consumers, however, have
expressed concern about the existence of GM
ingredients in their food as it is feared that they
may pose, yet to be classified health risks.
Seventy-one per cent of the adult population
report to be very or fairly concerned about the
safety issues in the context of GM foods (Food
Standards Authority, 2002). Consumer knowledge
regarding GMfoods is low because of lack
of pertinent information made available to
them. Government and businesses are in a
position to provide relevant information, but
are not trusted by consumers (www.gmnation.
org.uk, The findings of the public debate,
2006). For instance, a recent news headline
alerts consumers to a GM cover-up story-line,
by highlighting the failure of the Food
Standards Authority to identify and withdraw
GM-contaminated foods (Lean, 2006). Regular
media coverage has led consumers to question
the nature of food they eat, not just its contents
but also its origins. Organic methods of
production are becoming a norm; most supermarkets
now have entire aisles dedicated to
organic products (Murphy, 2006).
The most common association of dietary
health issues is still to obesity, and this has
provided an ongoing debate in recent years.
Whilst the continued growth of obesity within
the UK has yet to reach the gigantic proportions
that burden the United States, it is not
an issue that can be ignored (see Jolliffe, 2004).
According to the Royal College of Physicians, it
is estimated that one in five adults are obese in
Britain. The rise is equally dramatic amongst
Men, Women and Children (Frith, 2004; Hall,
2004; Martin, 2004). Obesity costs the NHS a
total of £3.6 billion per annum, it results in
30 000 deaths by related illnesses such as
cardio-vascular disease, strokes, cancer, respiratory
problems, heart disease and diabetes and
on average it decreases life expectancy by nine
years (Daily Star, 2004; Martin, 2004). More
recently, the media attention towards the
obesity crisis, in particular the coverage of
Spurlock’s experience based on his 30 days
McDonald’s only diet which formed the basis
for his movie ‘Super Size Me’, has alerted
consumers to the role organisations play in this
crisis by offering unhealthy portions of fatty
foods (The New York Times, 2004).
The three categories of products included in
this second study, Confectionary, GM foods
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
168 Seema Bhate
and Fast Foods, are all everyday consumer
purchase items and are also significant normatively
as they vary tremendously in terms of the
underlying reasons for why they are purchased.
For instance, using confectionery as
the research topic provides an interesting
perspective as the consumption of chocolates
can mean different things to consumers at
different times. It is a product that is consumed
by most and is perceived as pure indulgence,
comforting, calming, high in ‘feel good’ factors
and even medicinal in that it has been shown
to be a good source of antioxidants (Haynes,
2003; Scelfo and Helem, 2005; Sweney, 2005).
Despite links with obesity the confectionery
market has increased in the UK and has
resulted in the UK having the highest chocolate
consumption rate per head in Europe
(Cadbury Schweppes, Newsletter, 2006).
Although there is no evidence available yet
that links the impact of GM foods to long term
health issues, as is the case with the other two
products, it is the perception that consumers
hold regarding the ill-effects of GM foods that
has led to its inclusion in this study. However,
it is a contentious issue as it has ethical
implications such as tampering with nature
and violating the intrinsic values of organisms.
In addition, consumers may feel that due to the
lack of adequate information that they have
very little control in the decision-making
leading to the purchase of GM foods. Of the
three categories, the fast food products may be
viewed as more integrated with the everyday
purchase routine. By including this, it will be
interesting to see how much of informationprocessing
takes place in the context of their
purchase.
It is therefore expected that the three
product categories in this study will provide
a continuum in terms of the consumer
perception of the extent of the responsibility
that they can take in tackling the problems
associated with these products. The theoretical
expectation therefore is that consumers
will blame manufacturers concerned with
products that they believe that they have no
control over in terms of manufacturing and, to
a certain degree, in their consumption such as
the GM foods and to a lesser extent with fast
foods. The purchase and the consumption of
chocolates will still be viewed as being
self-regulatory.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses may be generated
based on the previous discussion. It is
expected that for:
GM foods
The respondents will apportion the most
blame on the organisations that are involved
in the GM foods business.
The respondents will perceive their contribution
to be minimal in this context.
Fast foods
The respondents will consider organisations
that are involved in the fast foods business to
be moderately responsible.
The respondents will perceive their contribution
to be minimal in this context.
Confectionery
The respondents will consider organisations
that are involved in the confectionery
business as not responsible
The respondents will acknowledge their
contribution in this context
Methodology
A sample of 160 respondents was generated by
using a door to door methodology. The
selection of the area was based on convenience.
Located on the outskirts of Durham, the
residential estate used in the study can be
described as family-oriented with teenage
children. Once an old mining area, it has gone
through regeneration in the recent years, with
new factory outlets. After a random start, every
fourth household was interviewed. In the case
of non-availability, the interviewer moved to
the next house and then followed the same
pattern. The interview process was conducted
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Corporate social responsibility 169
over a period of 10 weeks. The interviews
were largely conducted in the evenings to
ensure respondent’s availability.
In the questionnaire, the initial questions
were aimed at acquiring information regarding
the respondents’ characteristics and their
views on health and obesity. The middle
section of the questionnaire collected information
on respondents’ views and their actual
behaviour regarding fat, sugar and salt consumption
for fast food and confectionery. The
third section included questions on GM foods.
Findings
Overall sample
The sample consisted of 160 respondents of
which 92 are males and 58 are females
(Table 1). The majority of respondents believe
that obesity is a problem in the UK (chi value,
118.04; sig., 0.000) (Table 2). The sample
predominantly considered women and children
to be the most affected by obesity (chi
value, 52.36; sig., 0.000). When probed
regarding how the blame about the obesity
crisis should be apportioned, 63% of respondents
believed that the general public should
take responsibility. 51% of the sample perceived
McDonalds as aiding the growth of
obesity (chi value, 545.35; sig., 0.000). Sixtynine
per cent and 68% of respondents
considered the actual efforts of manufacturers
and consumers respectively in controlling
obesity as ‘moderate’ (manufacturers, chi
value, 172.45; sig., 0.000 and consumers, chi
value, 156.98; sig., 0.000). When questioned
about their expectations of the roles manufacturers
and consumers can play in order to
curb obesity, a similar response was obtained
for both manufacturers and consumers. Sixtyeight
per cent (chi. value, 34.93; sig., 0.000)
indicated that the manufacturers’ role should
range from between ‘a fair amount to quite a
lot’ and 87% (chi. value, 128.37, sig., 0.000)
considered that the consumers’ role should
also be either ‘a fair amount or quite a lot’.
Although 49% of respondents were aware of
schemes in the community, aimed at improving
public health, supported by manufacturers
only 26% had participated in them (chi value,
18.78; sig. 0.000). Eighty-seven per cent of the
sample considered the manufacturers’ level of
participation in schools to be either
‘inadequate or only moderately adequate’
(chi value 89.74; sig., 0.000). Fifty-six per cent
of the sample considered the low calorie
market to be served inadequately but this
result was statistically insignificant. Respondents
indicated that in their efforts to curb
obesity manufacturers should encourage
people to undertake more physical activities
Table 1. Sample characteristics
Sample size 160
Males 92
Females 58
Table 2. Consumer perceptions of general issues related to health
N df Chi Value Sig
Obesity in Britain 148 1 118.04 0.000
Most affected gender group 31 6 52.36 0.000
Manufacturers efforts to control obesity 110 3 172.45 0.000
Consumers efforts to control obesity 107 3 156.98 0.000
Expectations of manufacturers 108 3 34.93 0.000
Expectations of consumers 139 3 128.37 0.000
Consumers’ not participated in the schemes 60 1 18.78 0.000
Manufacturers’ participation in schools 136 3 89.74 0.000
Actions to curb obesity 93 9 78.96 0.000
McDonald’s named as aiding the obesity 81 10 545.35 0.000
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DOI: 10.1002/pa
170 Seema Bhate
and also recommended that there needs to be a
revision of the advertising procedures (chi
value, 78.96; sig., 0.000) (see Table 3).
The respondents considered that it is the
public who need to assume the responsibility
for the general health (see Table 4).
Sixty-three per cent of the respondents do
not read the information regarding the sugar
content provided on food labels (chi value,
10.57; sig., 0.001). Compared to this, the split
between respondents who read the labels for
the fat content is about half and half and
statistically insignificant. In the same vein, 62%
of the respondents indicated that these labels
do not influence their purchase (chi value,
9.26; sig., 0.000). Sixty per cent of the respondents
were reported however to have monitored
their confectionery intake (chi value,
6.40; sig., 0.000) and imposed restrictions on
their consumption (chi value, 27.23; sig.,
0.000). Eighty-one per cent of respondents
indicated that the food labels that provided
information on the sugar and fat content were
either ‘somewhat inadequate or moderately
adequate’ (sugar: chi value, 89.05, sig., 0.000;
fat content: chi value, 107.23; sig., 0.000). In
terms of their expectations, 68% reported that
manufacturers’ responsibility should range
between ‘a fair amount to quite a lot’.
Respondents have similar expectations of their
role, 87% considered their role to range from ‘a
fair amount to a quite a lot’ (expectations of
manufacturers: chi value, 34.93; sig., 0.000;
expectations of consumers: chi value, 128.37;
sig., 0.000). Fifty per cent of the respondents
considered the manufacturers’ responsibility
for the confectionery consumption to range
between ‘a fair amount to quite a lot’ (chi
value, 30.600; sig., 0.000). Eighty-two per cent
thought that there was a lot of advertising
(chi value, 85.95; sig., 0.000) as far as
confectionery was considered aimed largely
at children (chi value, 114.28; sig., 0.000) (see
Table 5).
The gender-specific analysis revealed that
women read labels for sugar (not fat) content
related to confectionery (sugar content: chi
value, 10.57; sig., .001). Women were also
more likely then men to be influenced by the
information provided on the labels (chi value,
22.00; sig., 0.000). The women, in the sample,
also monitored their confectionery intake (chi
value, 21.48; sig., .011) and imposed restrictions
on their confectionery consumption (chi
value, 7.84; sig., 0.000) (see Table 6).
Sixty-three per cent of the respondents did
not read labels for the salt content whereas
36% did read relevant labels (chi value, 12.25;
sig., 0.000). About half and half indicted that
Table 4. Behaviour in the context of Confectionery
N df Chi Value Sig.
Do not read labels on confectionery packaging: sugar 100 1 10.57 0.001
Monitor the levels of Confectionery 96 1 6.40 0.011
Impose restriction on Confectionery 113 1 27.23 0.000
Adequacy of information on labels
Fat 93 3 107.23 0.000
Sugar 126 3 89.05 0.000
Expectations of Manufacturers’ responsibility 150 3 34.93 0.000
Responsibility of manufacturers for Confectionery Consumption 142 3 30.60 0.000
Advertising for confectionery 130 5 85.95 0.000
Main targets for adverts 98 5 114.28 0.000
Table 3. Who is most responsible for public health?
First choice N
Public 110
Manufacturers 18
Government 13
Schools 5
Chi value 118.00; df. 6; sig, 0.000.
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Corporate social responsibility 171
they read the fat content but this finding is
statistically insignificant. Sixty-three per cent
(37% do not) of the respondents monitored
their intake levels of fast food (chi value, 11.02;
sig., .01). In addition, 73% of respondents
reported that they imposed restrictions on
their consumption of fast food intake on a daily
basis whereas 26% did not impose any
restriction at all (chi value, 36.10; sig.,
0.000). When asked about the adequacy of
labelling of the fat content, the responses
ranged from ‘very inadequate to moderately
adequate’ (chi value, 30.61; sig., 0.000)
whereas the responses, in the case of the salt
content indicated by the labels were ‘moderately
adequate’ (chi value, 53.08; sig., 0.000.)
When specifically asked about the responsibility
of manufacturers in aiding the consumption
of fast foods, however, 71% (chi value,
25.45; sig., 0.000) of the respondents rated the
role of manufacturers to range from ‘a
moderate to a fair amount’. Sixty-nine per
cent of the respondents considered the efforts
of manufacturers and consumers in controlling
obesity to be only of a moderate level.
Eighty-nine per cent of respondents indicated
that there is too much advertising in the case of
fast food (chi value, 165.33; sig., 0.000) mainly,
directed towards children (chi value, 369.64;
sig., 0.000) (see Table 7).
The sample revealed that women are more
likely to read labels giving them information
regarding the fat content (not salt) (chi value,
14.15; sig., 0.000). This information influenced
their purchase of fatty food (chi value, 10.88;
sig. .001). They also monitored their fast food
intake (chi value, 16.02; sig., 0.000) by
imposing a restriction on their consumption
(chi value, 6.19; sig., 0.000) (see Table 8).
Analysing the data related to the GM food, it
may be concluded that a majority of the sample
felt that the information available to them
regarding GM foods was inadequate (chi value,
47.25; sig., 0.000). Ninety-six per cent of the
responses considered them to be harmful (chi
value, 65.66; sig., 0.000). Sixty-five per cent of
the respondents also monitored the relevant
information regarding GM foods (chi value,
73.81; sig., 0.000) and 66% were influenced by
this information (chi value, 76.85; sig., 0.000).
The respondents (69%) also placed restrictions
on their purchase of these products (chi value,
Table 5. Gender-specific findings (Confectionery)
N df Chi Value Sig.
Read confectionery labels Sugar 37 1 10.57 0.001
Influence the purchase of confectionery 39 1 22.00 0.000
Monitor the purchase of confectionery 55 1 21.48 0.000
Impose restrictions on confectionery 56 1 7.84 0.000
Table 6. Behaviour in the context of fast food
N df Chi Value Sig.
Do not read labels on fast food packaging
Salt 101 1 12.25 0.000
Monitor the levels of fast food intake 101 1 11.02 0.011
Impose restriction on fast food 118 1 36.10 0.000
Adequacy of information on labels
Salt 73 3 53.08 0.000
Fat 40 3 30.61 0.000
Responsibility of manufacturers for The consumption of Fast food: 142 3 25.45 0.000
Advertising of Fast food: 130 6 165.33 0.000
Main targets: Children 116 5 369.64 0.000
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
172 Seema Bhate
89.04; sig., 000). The labelling of these GM
foods was also considered inadequate by 86%
of the respondents (chi value, 88.38; sig.,
0.000). Seventy-Six per cent considered manufacturers
responsible for the current perception
that the general public had regarding GM
foods (between 1 and 4 on a scale which
ranged from 1 to 9). When asked about the role
manufacturers play in providing pertinent
information regarding GM foods, 62% (as
compared to 29% and 59%, respectively who
held Scientists and the Government responsible)
considered that the provision of information
fell into the realm of the manufacturers’
responsibility (chi value, 11.30; sig., 0.001)
(see Table 9).
The gender-specific analysis highlights here
that men considered the information related to
GM food to range from inadequate to moderately
adequate and indicated that they are
influenced by this information.
Discussion and Conceptual
extension
The majority of participants in the study were
aware of obesity as a problem in the UK and, in
general, monitored their fat and sugar-intake.
Women and children were identified by the
sample as the most affected groups. In terms of
apportioning (in the contexts of fast food and
confectionery) the blame, there was a clear
indication that consumers were considered to
be most responsible followed by manufacturers,
government and schools. This result
backs up arguments generated in the previous
Table 7. Gender-specific findings (fast foods)
N df Chi Value Sig.
Monitor the intake of fat in fast food 45 1 14.15 0.000
Information influences the purchase 40 1 10.88 0.001
Monitor the intake of fast food 55 1 16.02 0.000
Impose restrictions on the consumption 57 1 6.19 0.000
Table 8. Behaviour in the context of GM foods
N df Chi Value Sig.
Knowledge about GM food 137 4 47.25 0.000
Understanding about GM foods 129 6 65.66 0.000
Monitor the existence of GM Foods 103 2 73.81 0.000
Influenced by the information 103 2 76.85 0.000
Impose restrictions 109 2 89.04 0.000
Adequacy of information available 75 3 88.38 0.000
Manufacturer’s role 79 6 41.10 0.000
Whose Responsibility is it to give information 99 1 11.30 0.000
Table 9. Gender-specific analysis (GM foods)
N df Chi Value Sig.
Influenced by the information 64 2 6.02 0.05
Labelling inadequate to moderately adequate 74 2 8.74 0.03
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
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Corporate social responsibility 173
study that also reported that the public should
take the overall responsibility for the obesity
crisis. This finding, although surprising, may be
explained within the framework used here.
Individuals, when consuming fast foods and
chocolates do so with a certain level of
understanding of the health risks associated
with these products. Individuals may perceive
the consumption of chocolates and fast food as
indulgent behaviour and link it with their
personal situations such as celebration and
depression and therefore, may feel personally
responsible for their actions.
Interpreting the results in terms of the stated
hypotheses, starting with GM foods, the first
hypothesis may be accepted. As expected, the
respondents indicated that the current information
available regarding the GM foods is
inadequate. The majority of the sample
perceived it to be the responsibility of both
manufacturers and the government to provide
pertinent information regarding the GM foods.
Based on the evidence the second hypothesis
can be accepted partially. As hypothesised, the
behavioural pattern related to fast foods
indicated that although respondents considered
the manufacturers’ responsibility in
curbing and aiding the obesity crisis as
‘moderate’ but considered their own role to
be significant. The third hypothesis may also
be accepted partially. As with fast foods, the
respondents also considered the role of
manufacturers to be ‘moderate’ but did not
consider themselves to be free of blame.
These results provide backing to the general
notion held regarding GM products. Health
concerns over the long-term impact of GM
foods have made consumers wary of their
purchase. With numerous variables and uncertainties
existing, consumers require more
detailed information regarding what they are
purchasing; the origins of their food and the
mechanics involved in the manufacture of
these products.
The results in the contexts of fast foods and
confectionery warrant further discussion. It is
apparent that consumers, in general, did not
read the labels in either instance. To elaborate,
two reasons may be put forward. Firstly, the
consumers may be disregarding the issue of
fat/sugar/salt in their diet. As these have a long
history of consumption, the level of threat
associated with them may be low. Secondly,
the information provided on the labels may not
add to their existing pool of knowledge. Both
explanations may provide an accurate description
of the situation. Consumers have become
more health-conscious, which is apparent by
the proliferations of various diets that have
appeared in the marketplace. In addition, the
current study indicates that although consumers
do not read labels that they do monitor
and restrict their consumption of such foods.
Consumers may evaluate and contextualise
any new information by using conventional
wisdom and may not consider it necessary to
consult the labels for further analysis.
It is, however, the analysis on gender that
reveals the most interesting pattern; women
are more likely then men to read the
information available on fat and sugar levels
and this leads to them monitoring, imposing or
changing their behaviour accordingly. By
contrast, in the context of GM foods, it is
men who consider the information provided to
be inadequate, or at the most moderately
inadequate, and indicate that their purchase
behaviour is influenced by this information.
Women are still responsible largely for doing
the bulk of the family food shopping and
therefore may feel it necessary to consult the
relevant labels to ensure the well-being of the
family members. The debate aroundGMfood is
still in its early stages and has not yet reached
the realms of every day public discussion. With
very little long-term research available to link
these foods to health, perhaps the danger
posed by fat and sugar levels in our food chain,
seems to be more real and immediate. Women,
therefore, may feel that they can exercise their
control more by choosing what, and how
much of, sugar and fat intake to have in their
daily diet, an option which is unavailable as yet
with the GM technology.
Summarising the key findings, it may be seen
that consumers, overwhelmingly, hold themselves
responsible for the consumption of fast
foods and confectionery but also indicate that
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
DOI: 10.1002/pa
174 Seema Bhate
the current level of manufacturer participation
is only moderately adequate and that they
expect an increased involvement from them.
Much of the argument has centred currently
around what sort of influence large organisations
have on the health aspects of their
products and more importantly what action is
available for them to partake in. Whether or
not the facts point towards organisations as a
prime contributor, it can be argued that the
impetus is indeed with the manufacturers to
take action and engage more with the public to
eliminate any misconceptions (Cellan-Jones,
2006).
Based on the above discussion, it is, therefore,
imperative to realise that a unitary
approach towards projecting an ethical image
will be inadequate. Instead the adoption of a
tripartite policy would incorporate the results
from the current investigation more adequately.
The principles involved in Ethical
Egoism may serve as a logical starting point for
this discussion. If consumers perceive their
role as significant and become more health
conscious, then it is the notion of ‘self interest’
that guides them to improve their health,
which ultimately may lead to the consequences
proposed by the Utilitarian theory.
Utilitarian principles, in this case, will be
directed towards the need for an overall
reduction of the salt, sugar and the fat content
in our food consumption. This process is
absolutely essential for the overall reduction of
unhealthy foods in our diets and to improve
the health of the nation in general, not just in
the immediate future but for the generations to
come. The proponents of the Kantian
approach, however will emphasize the significance
of getting the mechanics, for achieving
this, right. If an organisation’s key role is to
cater for the interests of their stakeholders, it
must also then be their responsibility to
provide customers, one amongst six stakeholder
groups, with an environment to
develop their rational capabilities. In addition,
in recent years, discerning consumers have
demonstrated their power and control by
boycotting the products that they consider
to be unethical (Smith, 1987; McCune, 1990;
Blythman, 2006). Thus, it has now become an
essential requirement on the part of the
manufacturers that they understand the
dynamics involved in the consumer information
processing and decision-making.
The choice of the food industry as an area of
research has been appropriate in that it has
provided manufacturers with an opportunity
to demonstrate a range of ethical activities in
the market place One area open to reform is
labelling. This remains a problematic and a
contentious issue, with very little agreement
between manufacturers and the Government
as to which labelling scheme to apply. This
highlights the dilemma faced by the manufacturers
in striking a fine balance between ethics
and profit maximisation. This is enforced by a
recent article by Fletcher (2006) which reports
of a revolt by the manufacturers against the
traffic light labelling promoted by the Government.
Since its introduction, there has been a
decline in the sales of certain product-lines.
Some manufacturers, therefore plan to abandon
this in favour of their own labelling
scheme.
If manufacturers are to correct the labelling
procedures, the corporate social responsibility
framework to achieve this will have to
take into consideration various requirements
debated in the preceding paragraph and the
life-cycle stages of the products used in this
study, as the pertinent information required by
the consumers, may vary. For instance, considering
that fast foods and confectionery, fat
and sugar have become an integral part of our
diets, it may, therefore, be argued that the
associated products and the information
available regarding them, may be in the
maturity stage. Therefore, in this case, regular
updates have to be made available to people
based on new scientific findings. For instance,
the long-held belief that chocolateconsumption
is linked to obesity has now
been modified. Dark chocolates are now
considered to be good for health, members
of society therefore need to be made aware
of this (Templeton, 2006). As compared to
this, GM foods are still in the developmental
phase and as a science it is new to the
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
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Corporate social responsibility 175
majority of consumers who therefore still
need to learn about the basics but more
crucially the risks that they may pose to
people’s health.
The conceptual extension of the above
theories in the context of advertising renders
itself to a confusing situation, thereby
blurring the distinction between ethics and
non-ethics. When applied in advertising,
some argue that ethical behaviour is ‘‘ to
allow the consumer unregulated choice
among products of varying quality and purity
[as] . . . an essential freedom which comes
from a responsibility to be ethical and
discerning. The seller should not be obliged
to perform the function for the consumer’’
(Chonko and Hunt, 1985). But a different set
of rules needs to be applied when the
consumer is not able to distinguish between
the good and bad i.e. children. Labelling it as
an ‘‘ethical morass’’, Turk (1979) argues that
the very organisations responsible for the
welfare of the children’s health, target them
in their adverts to enhance their profits. As an
area, therefore, this is still open to ethical
reforms. As implied in the current study, a
revision of advertising procedures needs to
be conducted so that the very young are not
the direct target for any advertising campaign.
Whilst a move towards this is already
underway the slightly older age-group (6–15)
should also be included in this group. The
reduction of confectionery in schools may
also be seen as a significant step forward in
this area (Haynes, 2003). Although approximately
half of the sample (49%) are aware of
community schemes and projects undertaken
by organisations only a very small percentage
(29%) have ever participated in them. In
conjunction with schools, manufacturers
need to increase their social participation
by promoting events such as ‘Get active
campaigns’ and ‘sports activities’ which are
already undertaken by Cadburys. A better
communication strategy needs to be
employed by organisations to inform consumers
of new initiatives undertaken to
improve their general health and to combat
obesity.
Conclusion and future research
In summary, individual health issues need to be
taken seriously in order to preserve the health
of Britain. All functions, especially the manufacturers
and the consumers themselves, must
take responsibility and develop alternatives to
combat obesity and other illnesses related to
the consumption of fatty foods. The suggestions
that stem from this research may help
organisations to approach the issue of health
from a practical point of view. Without
jeopardising the need for profit, organisations
may still look to secure the long term
satisfaction of their consumer-base by acting
in a socially responsible manner.
This has been a preliminary investigation
and the research recommendations are by no
means an exhaustive list. More research on
larger samples is required to investigate this
issue further.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Daniel Hill for
his contribution in the first study.
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Appendix 1
Findings from the first study
The sample generated had 68 respondents
which comprised 37 females and 31 males. The
mean age of the sample is 36.18; sd 17.61.
Twenty-six per cent of respondents had
dependents. Although there were differences
reported in terms of the restrictions consumers
imposed on their dependents, these differences
were not statistically significant. As
shown in Table A1, participants themselves
Table A1 Consumer consumption
N df Chi value Sig.
Restrict daily sugar intake 19 2 10.90 0.004
Restrict confectionery intake 47 2 22.83 0.004
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Public Affairs, May 2007
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178 Seema Bhate
however place restrictions on the amount of
confectionery they consume in any one day
and check fat and sugar levels in the
confectionery products.
When determining whether obesity was a
problem in Britain there was consensus
amongst respondents. Ninety per cent felt
that the problem of obesity could not be
ignored. Most male participants felt that
children were affected by obesity the most
in Britain. The 31–45 age group considered all
categories that is men, women and children to
be equally at risk. Amongst women, the
youngest and the oldest age group believed
that children are more prone to obesity.
According to women between 31 and 60 years
of age females are to more obese than men.
Overall at least 80% of the respondents
considered women to most likely suffer from
obesity.
Consumers were asked who they believed
should take the responsibility for the obvious
rise in obesity. Parents were considered the
most at fault (by 56% of the respondents) for
the rise in obesity. Organisations were rated as
the second most responsible group by 19% of
the respondents. Approximately 16% of the
participants felt that the general public were to
blame. When asked why they had apportioned
the blame in this way, many of the participants’
ideas were shared. The most common were
that parents had the ultimate control over what
their child ate and therefore are responsible for
their.
As the literature review indicates that
consumers consider organisations to be a
significant player as far as obesity is concerned.
It is therefore essential to draw out the
consumer attitudes towards their responsibility
especially those that provide confectionery.
Fifty per cent of the respondents indicated that
organisations have either no or very little
responsibility towards this crisis as compared
to 23% who considered them to be responsible.
When asked if they can identify any
particular manufacturer for the obesity crisis
the majority (91%) of the respondents were
unable to do so. On a scale of 1–10, 95% of the
participants rated organisations’ current
activity in terms of trying to reduce obesity
at 5 or less. Ninety-three per cent of respondents
reported that they were not aware of any
schemes run by organisations to promote
healthy living.
Table A2 Consumer perception of those most affected by
obesity
N df Chi Value Sig.
Obesity in Britain 61 1 42.88 0.000
Most affected gender group 22 3 28.18 0.000
Most affected age group 30 4 22.31 0.000
Table A3 Who should take the responsibility for the crisis?
N
Parents 38
Organisations 13
Public 11
Govt. 01
Schools 03
Chi value: 66.12; df 4; sig. 000
Public-parents chi-value 14.87, sig. 0.000
Table A4 The responsibility of organisations
N df Chi Value Sig.
Particular organisations 62 1 48.49 0.000
Are organisations responsible 34 4 8.59 0.072
Organisation’s participation 65 9 42.23 0.000
Aware of any schemes 63 1 51.95 0.000
Table A5 Opportunities for action
N df Chi Value Sig.
Market for low fat
confectionery
61 1 47.51 0.000
Reduction of the high
fat confectionery
45 1 7.89 0.005
Schools currently do
not promote activities
33 1 5.12 0.024
Activities suggested 51 1 29.02 0.004
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Corporate social responsibility 179
Almost 90% of the participants felt that there
was now a market for low-fat produce whilst
66% agreed that there was now a need to
reduce the number of high calorie products
available for consumers on the market.
Although schools were not deemed to be a
major contributor to the obesity issue, 66% of
respondents felt that they need to be actively
involved in reducing obesity. Amongst the
activities suggested were an increase in
physical activities and an improvement in
the food served in schools.
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DOI: 10.1002/pa
180 Seema Bhate