EDUCATION FOR
ALL: THE YEAR 2000 ASSESSMENT
COUNTRY REPORT
BY
INDONESIA
MINISTRY
OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE
1999
[This is an excerpt
of country report containing relevant sections on literacy and non-formal education.]
Downloaded
from Asia-Pacific Literacy
Data Base (http://www.accu.or.jp/litdbase).
EXECUTIVE REPORT
EDUCATION
FOR ALL IN INDONESIA
…..
Undoubtedly,
the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All (EFA-1990) has very much inspired
Indonesia to make the educational sector a top priority among human resources development programs
throughout the country. The EFA strategy in Indonesia basically consists of
four major programs, i.e., early childhood development (ECD), primary education,
literacy programs,
and continuing education. Since 1990, the great amount of resources --from the
Government, private sources as well as from international donors-- have been
devoted to invest in the development of these four program areas through a coordinating
scheme among the concerned agencies.
…..
The Equivalent Primary and
Lower Secondary Schools; apart from the formal
school system, basic education opportunity has also expanded through the non-formal education
channel. Those who are not accessible by the SD and SLTP also have enjoyed
learning in the Packet A and B programs that have invested more widely since
the launch of 9-year compulsory basic
education. The number of students participated in Packet A program has
increased since 1990 and reached the number of 44,803 in 1997/98, and most of
them (89.7%) have passed the SD equivalency examination and made them eligible
to pursue study to SLTP. The same is true, those who have participated in
Packet B have increased since 1994 up to 94,345 participants in 1997/98 and
most of them (90%) have passed the SLTP equivalency exam. Compared with the
great proportion of participants who passed
the SD and SLTP examinations, the Packet A and B programs are expected
to play a more important role in the future due to their higher efficiency
rates.
Literacy Programs; literacy program is one of the most
important continuing education implemented by the MOEC since early 1970's.
Beside the 9-year basic education equivalency of Packet A and B programs, Indonesia continues
to run literacy
programs through Packet A, Functional Packet A, and OBAMA which have absorbed a
great amount of public budget as investment in human resources. As a result,
the number of illiterate population (IP) age 15-24 years has been continually decreasing by 50.36%
within 8 years from 1.3 million people (3.79%) in 1990 to 662,551 people
(1.73%) in 1998. On the basis of gender illiterates age 15-24, young female has
a higher probability of being illiterate than its male counterpart. The female
illiteracy rate at
196.7% (or 884,954 people) out of male
illiterates in 1990 has decreased to 135.4% in 1998.
Training in Essential Skills; this is implemented by means
of vocational secondary school, non-governmental skill courses, industrial
occupational training, and apprenticeships. For the quality improvement of
vocational school graduates, an industry cooperation has been applied in most
of vocational schools. One of the successful programs for training in essential
skills is the standardization of the nine programs, --i.e. Secretary, Hotel,
Computer, Electronics, Mechanic Automotive, Accountancy, Food Preparation,
Fashion Design, and Beautician-- for improving quality of programs especially
in the areas of technical, social culture, and learning competencies.
It
has been a fundamental policy of the government to provide education for all
citizens. In terms of educational expansion, Indonesia keeps increasing
participation rate of SD and SLTP started intensively from 1990 toward the
coming millennium. In line with this policy and facing with the economic
crises, since July 1997, the Government has tried hard to prevent students from
dropping-out and encouraged the dropped-out children to attend the equivalent out-of-school education
programs. This is done by providing scholarships and learning funds for
children from poor families. However, it is recognized that an expansion policy
which has successfully made almost all 7-15 years old children attend basic
education program, does not automatically fulfill the demands of basic learning
needs as mentioned in the World
Declaration on Education for All (March, 1990). Future challenges will
still be confronted in making compulsory basic education functioning
effectively, such as to make students survive from the crises, develop their
full capacities, live and work in dignity, make informed decisions, and
continue learning.
For those very reasons, Indonesia
tried to develop various programs to make Education for All more meaningful for
the learners and society enhancing the
development of their full capacity. The following programs are cases
that Indonesia try to develop further.
…..
Second, many literate people became illiterate after attending the
learning groups because learning materials and the needs of the learners for
their survival and their needs to improve quality of life is hardly found
relevant. To overcome this, since 1996 with the assistance of the World Bank
and in cooperation with Asian/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO, Japan (ACCU),
Indonesia has started upgrading local staffs to be able to work with learners
in developing reading and learning materials more relevant to the learning
needs and interests of the learners. Furthermore, it is expected that learners
will find a true sense of becoming literate for the improvement of their
quality of lives.
Third, education should be relevant to the societal needs,
understood, and community-supported in order to become meaningful for the
people in undertaking societal functions. Indonesia has developed an approach
known as community-base education through developing a Community Learning Centers. The Centers, start at the 360 pilot
sites, serve community members who are not attending schools to acquire
functional and occupational skills. Such kind of continuing education programs
also upgrade community members in rural and poor areas --who are generally lacking in knowledge and information, have
limited competencies, lack of achievement motivation, and lack of capacity to
change and make progress-- in fulfilling basic learning needs as primarily
important and urgent needs to be provided. This program now is encouraged by
the Government as a part of national program for the alleviation of poverty.
…..
Sixth, the
Community Skill Training Center has become one of the urgent needs in the
Indonesian education system. This type of continuing education programs are
initiated and managed by private organizations and business communities who are
active in serving various skills for community members such as individuals,
graduates of various levels and types of education, drop-outs, employees, and
housewives. The programs offered include various types of specialization from
sewing, hair-dressing, up to management and banking. These programs are flexible
in nature in responding to the societal and occupational demands. The World
Bank considers this as a very strategic educational effort that will satisfy
the educational needs of the community in a fast changing time. The Ministry of
Education and Culture in particular is making serious efforts in promoting this
endeavor.
PART I
DESCRIPTIVE
SECTIONS
1. EFA Goals and Targets
…..
d. Reduction
of Adult Illiteracy
Rate
1) Objective
The objective of literacy
program is to eradicate three kinds of inability such as: inability in reading
Latin character and numeracy, inability in the Indonesian language, and
inability in basic education.
In order to achieve its objective, literacy program is divided into three stages
i.e., illiteracy
stage, development stage and sustainable stage. The improvement of the literacy program is
carried out through various activities such as research and study, monitoring
and evaluation and through various
innovative measures. Thus, in 1995/1996
functional literacy
was developed in 9 provinces assisted by
an expert assistance through World Bank Project. The pilot project, after some
evaluation and improvement, will be expanded to 27 provinces. The functional literacy is very
effective in eradicating illiteracy
since it covers the need and interest of the learners so that it could raise
their motivation and active
participation.
2) Target
During
10 years the program will cover 10 million people aged 10-44 in all stages.
Each year it will cover one million
illiterates and 600 thousand
semi-literate. During 10 years the illiteracy program will cover 16.5 million learners comprised of 5
million male and 11.6 million female.
e. Expansion
of Basic Education and Training in Essential Skills
1) Objective
The objective of training in essential skills is to decrease
unemployment, provision of skilled workers for entering job market
at local, regional, and at the national level, improving the capability
for those who work, improving market production and entrepreneurship for the
entrepreneurs. And those who work at the formal and informal economic sectors
as well as empowering various small and home industries.
2) Target
Target groups are young workforce
who are unemployed or those who
are at work but need additional skills, graduates of lower secondary school who
do not continue their education, and those who need skills in entrepreneurship
and students at vocational schools.
f. Education
for Better Living
1) Objective
Education for better living aimed at improving quality of life by
providing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and basic values to enable learners to
promote their quality of lives through individual, family and community
efforts. The promotion of quality of life through individual and family covers
health, education, economy, cultural values, humanity and job opportunity. The
promotion of quality of life for community members covers a better living
environment, community development, social services (social safety net) and
peace.
2) Target
The target groups are the poor community members who are now estimated
to be 80 million. It is also directed to
less educated people who are not healthy. The various groups covered by the
program are: 12 million of 10 years old and above, 21 million who do not complete primary education, 27
million who do not complete lower
secondary education, and 8 million who
do not complete upper secondary school.
2. EFA Strategy and/or Plan of Action
At present Indonesia is facing monetary crisis which will affect the
enrollment rate in 9-year basic education, transition rate from SD to SLTP,
increased number of illiteracy and drop-outs and decrease motivation of
community and family in the achievement of EFA. Therefore, the following
strategy and plan of action taking care of basic learning needs are planned for
the next 25 years by the technical working groups of EFA under the coordination
of the Coordinating Minister for People’s Welfare, such as:
·
….
·
Provide distance and out-of-school
equivalency program for children who are not
accommodated in primary or lower secondary school.
·
Eradicate illiteracy
through various innovative and integrated efforts.
·
Provide flexible and relevant educational opportunities for drop-outs,
newly
literates and graduates of
primary, lower and upper secondary education.
·
…..
During the International Literacy Day and May 2nd
(The Indonesian Education Day), the President of the Republic of
Indonesia makes a policy statement which is included in the 25-year development
plan of education in Indonesia. The strategy and plan of action are formulated
based on statements made by the President. The statements are reformulated
during the Committee meetings coordinated by the Minister for People’s Welfare
which consists of three sub committees, i.e. sub-committee on mobilization of
human resources, sub-committee on educational services, and sub-committee on
media and technology. The committee plans the meetings every 6 months to
monitor and review the programs and plans. Each of the member Ministries
revises the plans and strategies every five year and annually through the
National Planning Board.
For information and campaign on EFA it is done during the ceremonies of
International Literacy
Day and Indonesian Education Day. Various activities such as seminars, literacy competition, and
reading competition are being implemented to increase reading habits, and publications of pamphlets, posters and
leaflets are issued during the celebration.
3. EFA Decision-making and Management
A National Working Group of APPEAL was set up based on the Minister of Education and Culture directive No. 0377/P/1988 dated 30 July 1989. Technical team members of the working group consist of various Ministries and NGOs. The Ministerial level is coordinated by the Minister for People’s Welfare, who is also the coordinating body of 9-Year Basic Education in Indonesia, while the technical working group is coordinated by the Director-General of Out-of-school Education, Youth and Sports, Ministry of Education and Culture. At the levels of province, district, and sub-district it is coordinated by the Team Coordinator of 9-Year Basic Education, that is the Director-General of Basic and Secondary Education, MOEC.
…..
4. Cooperation in Education for All
…..
Community contribution is mainly
provided by non-governmental organizations, religious institutions and private
enterprises. NG0s are essential and significant partners of the Government in
its efforts to achieve EFA, and to improve quality of education, equity in
access, educational efficiency and relevance. This is based on a government
regulation of 1992 (Government Act no 32/92) which directs community
participation towards improved quality in education and encourages the
community to provide ideas and suggestions as inputs for educational policy
decision-making process and for the implementation of educational programs.
Hundreds of NGOs are working with Government in
eradicating illiteracy.
In addition to this, 19,000 private courses
institutions are also taking an active part.
…..
5. Investment on EFA
It is
very difficult to
find out an
exact number of how much
money have been
used to finance EFA in
Indonesia, because the biggest
part of the money used
for financing EFA
came from at
least two Directorate-Generals
(DGs). Some of financial resources of DG
of Basic and Secondary
Education have been used
to finance EFA activities,
so does the financial
resources of DG of Out-of-school Education, Youth and Sports. So, how
much money have been spent by these two
DGs (see the
following table) for educational
activities is used as a
proxy for how
much money had been invested for EFA activities.
Table 1
Educational Budget from
FY 89/90--FY 96/97
DG-BSE and
OSEYS
in million rupiahs
Institution
|
89/90
|
90/91
|
91/92
|
92/93
|
93/94
|
94/95
|
95/96
|
96/97
|
DG of BSE
|
713,045
|
1,076,344
|
1,347,645
|
1,615,119
|
1,913,804
|
2,437,370
|
2,954,839
|
3,297,257
|
DG of OSEYS
|
25,626
|
41,493
|
60,792
|
78,403
|
89,890
|
118,298
|
148,075
|
172,820
|
Total
|
738,671
|
1,117,837
|
1,408,437
|
1,693,522
|
2,003,694
|
2,555,668
|
3,102,914
|
3,470,077
|
GDP
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
1,744,000
|
1,737,000
|
1,975,000
|
2,297,000
|
Total/GDP
|
1,148,907
|
1,471,311
|
1,571,096
|
1,510,700
|
||||
Note: * data not available
The
table 1 shows that
educational budget for
EFA activities tended
to increase from 89/90 to
96/97 for both
always balanced with
the increasing tendency of
the gross domestic product (GDP) as
the table also
shows that the Total/GDP decreases from
1995/1996 to 1996/1997.
This comparison is
made by assuming
that the value
of rupiah to US
dollar is held
constant. It is not clear whether
or not the decreasing
tendency of total/GDP shows that the EFA
activities have achieved
its ultimate goals. To
ensure the issue one more
variable should be added, i.e. the Indonesian population who
still need the EFA activities. If
this population decreases, one may
expect the good
news that the EFA activities
have relatively reached the
goals (at least from the perspective
of equal opportunity of
access to education), but if this population increases, this will be a sign that
the EFA activities need
more attention from
all those who are concerned with. It is
beyond the scope of
today's discussion to speak
from the perspective of the
quality of education
because it involves
more variables.
PART II
ANALYTIC
SECTIONS
6.
Progress toward goals and targets
a.
Expansion of early childhood
care and developmental activities
…..
b) Education
and Training Program of Family with Infant (BKB)
The BKB program educates and trains
mothers in villages to improve their knowledge, attitudes and skills on how to
raise their infants and older children. The program of mothers, infants and
children is supported by the government and this has been spread throughout
Indonesia. This program is mainly for families who attend a family planning
program and have infants and small children. To support this program, BKB has
already trained volunteers as cadres of
BKB to help parents who are unable to educate and raise their children.
At the end of the training, parents are expected to educate their infants and
children and to supervise the development of children from the early age of
infants until they are three years old.
The data collected from 1991 to 1997
showed that there was a continuous increase on the groups of BKB or BKB participants. The sharp increase
could be seen in 1993, there was 7,431 groups with 119,800 participants in
1991 and this became 67,148 groups
with 1,237,488 participants in 1993. In
1996 the number of participants increased to
3,929,669. This condition was one of the impacts of active family
planning program at the time. Then, in 1997 however, there was a decrease of
participants around 4 percent. This might be as an impact of economic crisis in
Indonesia. In 1998 there was again an increase of around 15 percent
towards BKB participants. This situation
indicated that an effort to increase facilities of BKB and its participants were actively done
(see Graphic 6). Data on the members of BKB in 1995 and 1996 are not available.
Source: national Family Planning Coordinating Board (BKKBN)
Some
issues and problems of BKB are as
follows.
(1).
Although the number of BKB has fulfilled the target, families who have
participated in this program are not low income families but are those from
middle and under middle income families that were established through family
planning.
(2).
Nearly all trainers of BKB are volunteers and their jobs can continually be
renewed. They have also lack of experiences to support the cognitive
development of children.
2)
Education
Beside health sector, ECD is also implemented through
an educational program. Education in pre-primary school is a kind of education
to help raise and develop children physical and mentally outside the family
environment before they go to primary school. This program is conducted either
through formal education or through out-of-school education. The types of pre-primary school are
play group, kindergarten, and other places where mothers can send their
children during work, called ‘Day Care’ (Tempat Penitipan Anak-TPA).
……
b.
Primary Education
…..
3) Out-of-school Basic Education
According to the Law on National Education System, the education system
is organized in two different channels, in-school or formal education and
out-of-of school or non-formal education. The
out-of-school
education is based on Government Regulation No 73/1991. The regulation stated
that out-of-school education is aimed at (a) serving
learners in order that they could develop themselves at their earliest age
during their life to uplift their standard of living and their self-esteem, (b)
developing learners in order that they acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes
needed to develop themselves, to work to get income and to continue education
at the higher level, (c) meeting the educational needs of the community which
could not be met by the school. The out-of-school basic education consists of Packet A equivalent to
Primary Education and Packet B equivalent to Lower Secondary Education.
The objective of the programme is to support the Nine Year Compulsory
Basic Education through the out-of-school
education channel in order that all children age 13-15 attain education equal
to lower secondary education level. In addition, it makes possible for learners
to fulfill the requirements for further education at higher level. The learning
activity is held three times a week depending on the consensus reached by the
learners, tutor, manager, and organizer. Students study with the tutors but
must also study autonomously or in small groups outside the class time. The
learning content is divided according to lower secondary education curriculum,
delivered in the form of modules. Students are evaluated by a multiple-choice
test on each subject at the end of each semester to determine if they will move
on to the next set of modules.
1) Packet
A Program Equivalent to Primary
Education
Packet A program is a non-formal equivalent to primary education
program which would provide both general and vocational education to the
drop-outs or to those who could not be
accommodated in formal schools.
Packet A learning activity is implemented through learning groups
and/or course. Each group consists of a maximum
of 40 learners assisted by at least one tutor who have had educational
training or who are teachers of primary school. Generally, three groups are
assisted by an institution or organization and a program manager is appointed
for those three learning groups. Tutor and manager are given a monthly
financial incentive. The financial resource of the Packet A program may come
from the state income and expenditure budget, the provincial income and
expenditure budget, grant or loan from abroad, and community self-financing. In
1994, Packet A was implemented within
the framework of supporting the Nine Year Basic Education program. During
1997/1998 a National Final Stage Evaluation (PEHAPTANAS) was organized in
cooperation with the Examination Center.
Out of the 44.803 participants 40.164 (89.65%) passed the exam. After
having successfully passed the PEHAPTANAS, the graduates of Packet A were given
the opportunity to continue studying at an advanced level through formal school
or non-formal one.
2) Packet B Program Equivalent to Lower Secondary Education
The Packet B program is a non-formal equivalent to a lower secondary
education program which would provide both general and vocational education to
primary school graduates or its equivalency who could not continue education,
and to lower secondary school drop-outs. The program is intended for 13-15
years population, however, older students are accepted as well. Packet B
students are not expected to continue schooling after graduation, but if they
want to do so they can sit in a state equivalency examination and obtain a regular lower
secondary school certificate. Therefore, the vocational component of Packet B
is regarded as an important part of the program, to ensure that after
graduation the students already in possession of some skills for employment or
self-employment. Further training may be needed, which will be provided by
courses or by income-generating programs in continuing education.
Packet B learning activity is implemented through learning groups
and/or course. Each group consists of a maximum of 40 learners assisted by at
least 5 tutors who have had educational training or who are considered to be
able to teach a subject matter or study field in Packet B program. Generally,
three groups are assisted by an institution or organization and a program
manager is appointed for those three learning groups. Tutor and manager are
given a monthly financial incentive. The financial resource of the Packet B
program may come from the state income and expenditure budget, the provincial
income and expenditure budget, grant or loan from abroad, and community
self-financing. At the end of three years, students take a test similar to the
one taken by the regular lower secondary education students. The achievement
exams are nationally organized, therefore, the Packet B graduates will have the
same quality as lower secondary education graduates. The graduates receive
certificates, equal rights and recognition to pursue further education.
In order to
find out the results of instruction during 1997/1998 a PEHAPTANAS was organized
in cooperation with the Examination Center, MOEC. Out of 94.345 participants
89.62% successfully passed. Among participants who passed the PEHAPTANAS tests, some of them pursue
a higher educational level (Upper Secondary School).
c. Learning Achievement and Outcomes
…..
d. Adult Literacy
1)
Number of Illiterate Population (IP) of 15-24 years age group, Year 1990-1998
The number of illiterate population
(IP) of 15-24 years age group in Indonesia, in 1990 and in 1998, were
respectively 1,334,816 and 662,551 people, or equal to, respectively, 3.79% and 1.73% of the total number of population 15-24 years age group. The
IP has decreased by 50.36% or by 672,265 people
during the last 8 years. The decreasing
number of illiteracy is shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8
Decreasing
Number of Illiterate Population (IP)
of 15-24 years age group, Year 1990-1998
Decreasing Number of Illiterate Population of 15-24 years age group,
year 1990-1998
|
||||
No
|
Year |
Total Illiterate |
Decreasing
number
of Illiterate Population percentage |
|
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
|
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
|
1,334,816
1,265,488 *
1,196,160
1,027,937
867,399
877,827
846,974
733,775
662,551
|
69,328
69,328 *
168,223
160,538
+10,428
**
30,853
113,199
71,224
|
5,19
5,48
14,06
15,62
1,20**
3,51
13,37
9,71
|
Note:
* = number of estimation; ** = a rise in number of IP
Source:
Central Bureau of Statistics
On the basis of gender illiterates of 15-24 years age group, young female has a
higher probability of being illiterate than young male. It can be seen from the
data of 1990 that female illiteracy
rate was 196.72% (or 884,954 people)
of the number of male illiterates. Although female illiteracy rate in 1998 was still higher than
male illiteracy
rate, female illiteracy
rate has decreased during the period of 1990-1998 (from 196.72% in 1990 to 135.58% in 1998).
On
the basis of illiteracy
rate by location (rural versus urban), there were a significant difference
between rural and urban illiteracy
rate. The data indicated that rural illiteracy rate in 1990 was 86.85% of the total number of
IP or accounted to 1,159,264 people, and in 1998, 569,623 people or 85.97% of the total number of IP.
The decrease in the number of
illiterate population during the period of 1990 to 1998 may be described in
details as follows. In 1990 the number of illiterates may be described as
follows. The number of male illiterates of 15-24 years age group in urban area
was 56,251 people and female illiterates
was 119,310 or 67.96% of the total
number of IP located in the urban area. The number of male illiterates was
393,611 and 765,653 female illiterates
or 66.05% of the
total number of IP located in the rural area.
In
1991, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group
was 1,265,488 people or 3.7% of the total number of population
aged 15 to 24. That number included
426,497 male illiterates and 838,991 female illiterates or 66.3% of the total number of IP of 15-24 years age group. The most
of IP
was found in the rural area (87.50%
or 373,168 people). The illiteracy
rate during the period 1990-1991 indicated that illiteracy
decreased 5.19% or 69,328,
consisting of 23,365 male and 845,963 female illiterates.
In 1992, the number of illiterate
population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 1,196,160 or 3.42% of the total number of population of 15-24 years age group
consisting 408,080 (34.12%) male
illiterates and 788,080 (65.88%)
female illiterates. The highest illiteracy rate was found in the rural area (i.e. 86.47%). Similar to the previous year, female illiteracy rate was still
higher than male illiteracy, either located
in the rural (65.23%) or in the urban
(70.06%) areas. Compared to the 1991 data, there was a decrease of the number
of IP in 1992 of 5.48% or 69,328,
while the composition and their spreading were relatively the same as in the previous year.
In 1993, the number of
illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was 1,027,937 or 2.88% of the total number of population
of 15-24 years age group. That number included 361,280 male illiterates and
666,657 female illiterates or 64.85% of
the total number of IP by 15-24 years age group. The highest illiteracy rate was found
in the rural area 885,348 people or 86.13%. Compared to the previous year
(1992), the number of IP decreased in
1993 by 14.06% or 168,223, while the
probability of their spreading was relatively the same as in the previous year.
In 1994, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years ages
group 867,399 or 2.37% of the number of population of 15-24 years age group. That
number included 311.897 (35.95%) male
illiterates and 555,502 (64.04%)
female illiterates. Most of the IP was
found in the rural area (85.61%).
Similar to the previous years, number of female illiterates in 1994 was higher than male illiterates, either located
in rural (63.65%) or in urban (66.37%) areas. The number of IP decreased
by 15.62% (160,538) of its
previous year, while their composition and spreading were relatively the same
as that of the previous year.
In
1995, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was
877,827 or 2.47% of the number of
population of this group. That number
included 342,323 male illiterates and 535,504 female illiterates or 61% of the total number of IP of this
group. Most of them were
located in the rural area, i.e. 742,548 or 84.59%. The number of IP in 1995 increased to 10,428 and it
increased 1.20% compared to 1994. The increase was caused by coming of male illiterates, i.e. 30,426 or 9.76%, either located in urban (39.47%) or in rural (5.13%) areas. On the contrary, the
number of female illiterates has decreased from
3.6% or 19,998 people,
comprising 7.36% in urban and 2.94% in rural areas. The increase of
the number of IP, probably, was caused by using a different system of data
sampling from the previous one.
In 1996, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age
group was 846,974 or 2.31% of the total population of
15-24 years age group comprising of 328,368 (38.77%) male illiterates and 518,606 (61.23%) female
illiterates. Most of them were found in the rural area (85.3%). Compared to 1995, in 1996 there was a decrease in the
number of IP, accounted for 30,853 or 3.51%.
Similar to the previous years, the number of female illiterates was still
higher than male illiterates, either
located in rural (61.85%) or in urban
(57.61%) areas.
In
1997, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age group was
733,775 or 1.92% of the total number
of population of 15-24 years age group. That number consists of 283,397 male illiterates and 450,378 female illiterates
or 61.38% of the total number of IP
of this group. The highest illiteracy
rate was found in the rural area, i.e. 57.61%
or 631,934 people. Compared to 1996, in
1997 the number of IP decreased to 13.37% or 113,199. The possible spreading was the same as in the previous years.
In 1998, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15-24 years age
group was 662,551 or 1.73% of the
total number of population of the same
age group. That number consisted of 281,240 (42.45%) male illiterates and 381,311 (57.55%) female illiterates. Most of them was found in the rural
area (85.97%). Compared to 1997, there was a decrease of the number of IP in 1998 by 9,71% or accounted to 71.224. Similar to the previous years, female illiteracy rate was higher
than male illiteracy
rate, either located in rural (57.76%)
or in urban (56.28%) areas. The
number of IP decreased by 13.37% or 113,199 compared to the
previous year. The decrease in male illiterates was 2,157 (7.61%)
and in female illiterates was 69,067 (…%) has contributed to the decrease in
the total number of IP.
2) Number of IP of 15 years old and over, Year
1990-1998
The number of IP of 15 years old and over in 1990 was 22,102,647 or 20.32% of the number of population by
the same age group. That number consisted of 6,229,833 (28.19%) male illiterates and 15,872,814 (71.81%) female illiterates. In 1998, the number of IP 15 years old
and over remained 16,641,760 (12.11%) of the total number of
population of this group,
comprising 5,022,614 (30.18%) male illiterates and 11,619,146
(69.82%) female illiterates.
The data showed that the number of IP decreased to 5,460,887 (24.71%) during the last eight (8) years. The decrease in the number
of IP (except for the period of 1994 to 1995, there was an increase by 6.63%)
is presented in Table 2.9.
On the basis of gender
illiterates of 15 years old and over, female illiteracy rate tends to be higher than male illiteracy rate. It can be
seen from 1990 data, the number of
female illiterates was 15,872,814 or 254.79% of male illiterates. Also, in
1998, female illiteracy
rate was still higher than male illiteracy rate, accounted
for 11,619,146 or 231.34% of male
illiterates.
On the basis of illiterate
population by location (rural versus urban), it is found that rural illiteracy rate tends to be
higher than urban illiteracy
rate. Data of 1990 showed that rural illiteracy rate was 86.26% of the total number of IP (or 19,064,689 people) and in
1998, it decreased to 13,576,979 (81.58% of
the total number of IP).
Table 2.9
Decreasing Number of Illiterate Population of 15 years old and over,
Year 1990–1998
Decreasing number of
Illiterate Population of 15 years old and over year 1990 - 1998P
|
||||||
No
|
Year
|
Total Illiterate
|
Decreasing number
|
|||
of
Illiterate population
|
percentage
|
|||||
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
|
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
|
22,102,647
22,071,298 *
20,039,949
20,214,421
18,529,280
19,844,743
19,075,696
16,443,550
16,641,760
|
31.349
2,031,349
(+)174,472
685,141
(+)1,315,763
769,047
2,632,146
198,210
|
**
**
|
0.14
10.14
0.86
9.09
6.63
4.03
16.00
1.20
|
|
Note: * =
number of estimation; ** = a rise in
number of IP
Source: Central
Bureau of Statistics
The decrease in the number of IP of 15 years old and over, during the
period of 1990 to 1998, is presented as
follows:
In 1990, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and
over, in the urban area, was 804,312 (26.48%)
male illiterates and 2,233,646 (73.52%)
female illiterates. While in the rural area, it was found 5,425,521 male
illiterates and 13,639,168 female illiterates or 71.54% of the total number of IP located in the rural area.
In
1991, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was
22,071,298 (19.33%) of the total
number of population by the same age group. This number consisted of 6,219,692
male illiterates and 15,851,606 or 71.82%
of the total number of IP by the same age group. Most of IP was found in the
rural area, i.e. 19,033,882 (86.26%),
comprising 5,417,352 male illiterates
and 13,616,530 (71.54%) female
illiterates. Compared to 1990, there was
a decrease in the number of IP in 1991 by 0.14%
or 31,349 people, while there was no
significant difference in the decrease of the number of IP
between male and female illiterates.
In
1992, the number of IP of 15 years
old and over was 22,039,949 or 18.55% of the total number of population
by the same group. This number included 6,865,208 (31.15%) male illiterates and 15,174,741 (68.85%) female illiterates. Most of them was found in the rural area (82.96%). Similar to 1991, in
1992 the number of female illiterates was higher than male illiterates, either
located in rural (67.7%) or in urban
(74.47%) areas. Compared to 1991, there was a decrease in the
number of IP in 1992, accounted for 31,345 (0.14%).
Their composition and spreading were the
same as in the previous years.
In 1993, the number of
illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was 20,214,421 or 16.67% of the total number of population
by the same age group. This number consists of 6,282,265 male illiterates and
13,932,156 female illiterates or 68.92% of the total number of IP by the
same age group. Most of IP was found in
the rural area, accounted for 16,719,661 or 82.71%.
Compared to 1992, there was a decrease in the number of IP in 1993 by 8.28% or 1,825,528, while this number
was relatively proportional among male
and female illiterates.
In 1994, the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and
over was recorded as 18,529,280 or 14.84%
of the total number of population by the same age group, while the number of
male illiterates was 5,726,074 (30.90%)
and the number of female illiterates was 12,803,206 (69.10%), The majority was found in the rural area (82.56%). Similar to the previous years, the number of female
illiterates was always higher than male
illiterates both located in rural (67.81%)
and in urban (75.20%) areas. Compared
to 1993, there was a decrease in the
number of IP in 1994, accounted for 1,685,141 or 8.34%, Their composition and spreading were relatively the
same as in the previous years.
In 1995, the number of
illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was recorded as 19,844,743
or 15.99% of the total number of
population by the same age group. This number included 6,106,584 male
illiterates and 13,738,159 female
illiterates or 69.23% of the number
of IP by the same age group. The
majority was found in the rural area,
i.e. 16,104,964 or 81.15%. There was
an increase in number of IP, accounted for 1,315,643, which differed from the
previous years or an increase of 6.63% of the number of IP by the same age
group in 1994. The increasing number of
IP was contributed by an increase
in the number of male and female
illiterates, accounted for respectively to
380,510 (6.65%) and 934,953 (7.30%).
The increasing number of IP was
caused probably by using a different system of data sampling from the previous
one.
In 1996, the number of illiterate population of 15 years old and over
was 19,075,699 or 14.66% of the total
number of population by the same age group. This number included 5,888,339 (30.84%) male illiterates and 13,193,360
female illiterates or 69.16%. The
majority was found in the rural area (81.66%).
Compared to 1995, there was a decrease
in the number of IP in 1996, accounted for 769,044 or 3.88%. Similar to the
previous years, the number of female illiterates in 1996 was higher than
male illiterates, either located in rural (67.87%)
or in urban (74.91%) areas.
In 1997 the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and
over was reported 16,943,550 or 12.59%
of the total number of population by the same age group. This number consisted
of 5,155,550 male illiterates and 11,779,000 female illiterates or 69.56% of the number of IP by the same age group. Most of them was found in the rural area, accounted for 13,681,329 or 80.79%. Compared to 1996, there was a decrease in the number of
IP in 1997 by 11.22% or 2,141,149
people. The probability of spreading was relatively the same as in the previous
years.
In
1998 the number of illiterate population (IP) of 15 years old and over was
counted as 16,641,760 or 12.11% of
the total number of population by the same age group. This number consisted of
5,022,614 (30.18%) male illiterates
and 11,619,146 (69.82%) female
illiterates. The majority was found in rural area, i.e., 13,576,979 (81.58%).
Compared to 1997, there was a decrease
in the number of IP in 1998 by 292,790 (1.73%).
Similar to the previous years, the number of female illiterates was higher
than male illiterates, either located in rural (68.63%) or in urban (75.08%)
areas.
3) Innovations Implemented
a)
Combating Illiteracy
Successful campaign against illiteracy requires the
involvement of all parties and support of various governmental agencies with
similar program targets, Therefore, as
of 1994/1995 implementation of the campaign
against illiteracy
was developed through the Aksara Manunggal Bhakti Operation or OBAMA, Campaign
against illiteracy
through OBAMA has the objective of augmenting coordination between the Ministry
of Home Affairs, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the Ministry of Education
and Culture and the ABRI (Armed Forces).
In OBAMA the role of
ABRI is as the responsible agent
operationally, and as a facilitating agent,
The Ministries of Home Affairs and Religious Affairs play a role in
optimizing the utilization of equipment and mobilization of teaching staff
under the regional government, as well as the
mobilization of prominent local community members. The party responsible
for technical implementation of OBAMA is the Ministry of Education and Culture.
In order to motivate
the implementers of the Illiteracy
Campaign Program a literacy
prize competition is organized annually
from Kabupaten (district) up to national levels, Winners of the Literacy Prize
Competition at national level were announced during the Celebration of the International Literacy Day.
The role of Lembaga
Swadaya Masyarakat (NGO) and social
organizations in empowering community members
to continuously join the literacy learning groups
is very important.
The results achieved during 4 years are as
follows:
In fiscal year 1994/1995, through OBAMA project about one million participants
participated in literacy
classes. In 1995/1996 one million members finished the basic level while another million joined the literacy classes. During
1996/1997 one million joined literacy
classes as beginners, two million
finished the basic literacy
level and one million were fully
literate.
b) The Packet A Equivalent to Primary School
(SD)
In 1994, the Packet A equivalent to SD was implemented within the framework of
supporting the nine-year compulsory basic education program.
During 1997/1998 a National Final
Phase Evaluation (PEHAPTANAS) was organized in cooperation with the Examination
Center, MOEC. Out of 44,803 participants
40,164 (89,65%) passed the exam.
After having successfully passed the
PEHAPTANAS, the participants were given
the opportunity to continue studying at an advanced level through formal school
or out-of-school
channel.
For the improvement and development
of the tutors’ knowledge while assisting the learners a tutor association has
been established.
c) The Packet B Equivalent to Lower Secondary
School ( SLTP)
Under Packet
B learning groups since 1998/1999, in addition to the main subjects,
which are in the form of modules,
specific skills in agriculture were also
being developed. In order to find out the results of the learning process
during 1997/1998 a PEHAPTANAS was organized in cooperation with the Examination
Center, MOEC. Out of 94,345 participants
there were 89.628% who successfully passed the exam,
Among participants who passed the
PEHAPTANAS tests, some of them continued to study at a higher level (Upper Secondary School).
e.
Training in Essential Skills (TES)
…..
7. Effectiveness of the EFA
Strategy, Plan and Programs
…..
…..
There are at least two
prominent aspects that need to be reviewed to improve the government strategies
to carry through this program. First, as
the implication of 9-Year Universal
Basic Education program is to provide educational opportunities for about 6
million people, the limited capacities of the government for schooling
provision should optimally be matched with the efforts of implementing Packet A
(for primary school level) and Packet B (for lower secondary level) programs.
There has to be priorities setting promulgated, so as Packet A and Packet B
programs can optimally be devoted to contribute to Nine-Year Compulsory Basic
Education program.
…..
8. Main problems encountered and anticipated
…..
d. Problems in Illiteracy Eradication
1) Lack of continued support of
community and NGOs in empowering and motivating adult literacy learners.
2) The different data on the
number of illiteracy
collected caused lack of accuracy in data analyses.
e. Problems of Training in Essential Skills
There
is disparity between job-seekers and job opportunities due to the existing
disparity between the skills acquired and the required skills. The problem will
persist if equality, relevancy and quality of education are not continuously
promoted. The enhancement of equal educational opportunities and quality of
basic education will improve the structure of workforce in Indonesia, which in
turn will increase economic growth of the country and create new job
opportunities.
f. Conclusion.
In principle, lack of access to production of data which is useful,
accurate, and on time, has been the main problem to be solved in order to
facilitate the decision-making process and the accuracy in educational
planning. The coordination among the concerned ministries/agencies is one of
the key factors in solving this problem.
9. Public awareness, political will and national
capacities
…..
In order to support the
program of compulsory 9-year basic education, out-of-school education has also a very important
role to play. In addition to elimination of illiteracy, it also provides an education equivalent
to primary and lower secondary school, namely Packet A and Packet B. Therefore,
school and out-of-school
education are mutually supportive in aiming at providing a 9-year basic
education opportunity.
10.
General Assessment
This
sub-chapter discusses general assessment
of the following aspects, i.e., early childhood development, basic education
(primary and lower secondary school, which include Madrasah Ibtidaiyah-Islamic
primary school-and Madrasah Tsanawiyah-Islamic lower secondary school), literacy program and
training in essential skills.
…..
d. Literacy Program
Despite some problems faced by the Indonesian
people, especially monetary crisis since the midst of 1997, literacy program shows
significant improvement. Good coordination among Ministry of Home Affairs,
Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education and Culture, and Ministry
of Defense has made significant contribution to the success of literacy program. This
coordination is realized through a program called "OBAMA"
("Operasi Bakti Manunggal Aksara") where Ministry of Home Affairs and
Ministry of Religious Affairs are responsible for the optimalization of
educational resources (educational facilities and manpower). Ministry of
Defense is responsible for the availability of facilitators, while Ministry of
Education and Culture is responsible for technical implementation of the
program.
As long as the equivalent to
Primary School is concerned, one of the
development of literacy
program is at the outset the Packet A equivalent to SD in 1994, where the
graduate of this packet is allowed to continue studying at the higher level of
education, through formal or out-of-school
channel. A tutor association has been established for the tutors in order that
they can improve their knowledge and skills while they also assist the learners
to learn.
Similar to Packet A, the graduate of packet B is also allowed to continue studying
to Upper Secondary School.
PART III
PROSPECT
POLICY DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE
11. Policy directions for the
future
It has been the basic policy of the
Indonesian government emanating from the constitutional obligation to provide
education for all Indonesian citizens. For this, the policy for educational
expansion is still the basic one. Based on this policy, Indonesia keeps
increasing the participation rate of primary school children from 92.02% in 1990
to 94.98% in 1996, and literacy
rate from 79.86% in 1990 to 85.34% in 1996. In line with this policy, the
government in facing the economic crisis, since July 1997, has tried hard to
prevent students from dropping-out and provided out-of-school children to get equivalency program
through out-of-school
educational program by providing scholarships for children from the poor
families, and providing learning fund for out-of-school children that attend equivalency
programs. …..
b. Functional Literacy
Movement
When
literacy rate has
reached 87% of the 10 years of age and above, this rate will be very hard to
increase. One of the factors influencing this situation is the many literate
people who became illiterate after leaving the learning group. This seems to be
due to irrelevant nature of the learning materials to the learning needs of the
learners for their survival as well as for their need to improve the quality of
life. To improve this condition since 1996 with the help of the World Bank
expert and in cooperation with Asian/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO, Japan
(ACCU), Indonesia has started developing reading and learning materials more
relevant to the learning needs of the learners. For this, we are upgrading
local staff to be able to work with the learners to develop and write
reading/learning materials relevant to their interests and needs. It is
expected that through this model, the learners will find the sense of becoming
literate for the improvement of their quality and lives.
c.
Community-based Education and Community Learning Centers
Recognizing that unless education is relevant to the
societal needs, understood, and supported by the community, education will not
be meaningful to the people and therefore its functions in the community will
not be attained effectively as expected. For this, Indonesia tried to develop
an approach known as Community-Based Education. This approach is to be
implemented through an out-of-school
education program through the development of Community Learning Centers. These centers,
start with about 360 sites, act as community education centers serving
community members that do not have a chance to attend schools, that need to
master functional and marketable skills to improve their quality of lives and
other functions of continuing education. It is understood that in many cases
rural areas are poor areas. This is due to the lack of knowledge and
information, limited competencies, lack of achievement motivation, and lack of
self confidence of the people to change and progress. For this very reason, the
availability of continuing education programs that can upgrade community
members to fulfill their basic learning needs is very important and urgently
need to be provided. This program now is encouraged by the government as a part
of national program to alleviate poverty.
…..
f.
Standardization of Community Skill Training Program
Community skill training center has become one of the strategic
characteristics of the Indonesian education system. These continuing education
programs are initiated and managed by private organizations and the business
community who are active in serving the educational needs of the community. The
clients of this programs are individuals, the graduates of various levels and
types of education, drop-outs, employees, as well as housewives. The types of
programs offered include various trades and specialization from sewing,
hair-dressing, up to management and banking. These programs are so flexible in
nature in responding to the societal and job market demands. The World Bank saw
this as a very strategic educational effort that can satisfy the educational
needs of the community in a fast changing time. The Ministry of Education and
Culture in particular is making serious efforts in this endeavor.
g. Armed Forces
Civic Mission to Combat Illiteracy
After literacy rate achieved
the level of 86% it is difficult to find and organize learning groups due to
thinly scattered illiterate people, mostly in remote areas and isolated places
as well as in poor areas in urban neigbourhood. To identify and organize the
illiterates efficiently and effectively into the learning groups, the Ministry
of Education and Culture recognizes that it is impossible for the Ministry
alone to manage effectively. For this very reason since 1995 Indonesia launched
a joint effort among Ministries of Education and Culture, Religious Affairs,
Home Affairs, and the Armed Forces to combat illiteracy with the personnel of the Armed Forces
supporting the mobilization and operation of the program especially for the
illiterates in the remote and isolated areas.
…..
